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Nonfiction

Why Buenos Aires Is Not Paris

By Beatriz Sarlo
Translated from Spanish by Eric M. B. Becker & Julia Tomasini
In this essay, literary and cultural critic Beatriz Sarlo takes on the longstanding myth that Buenos Aires is the Paris of South America.

Among the many commonplaces about Buenos Aires, I’ll mention but two. The first panders to the Argentinean ego and is especially inaccurate: Buenos Aires resembles Paris. The second was a criticism that could be heard for decades from the mouths of these same Argentineans who would drive themselves into a frenzy imagining themselves heirs of a certain Frenchness. Differently from that which purported a similarity to Paris, the second observation is right on the mark: Buenos Aires is a redundant and monotonous city. What’s curious is that Argentineans adhere to both verdicts, despite the fact they contradict one another. Let’s start with the first.

Buenos Aires is not like Paris because, commonplaces aside, the projects that have shaped it since the first third of the nineteenth century fused models from distinct European origins. Naturally, it was desirable to have large avenues (which are not Paris’s private domain, by the way); some of these strongly recall those of Madrid and Barcelona. But the grand public edifices (which form veritable landmarks) are not invariably of French inspiration: their façades are neoclassical, Italianate, eclectic, art deco, even expressionist and modernist. In the thirties, the famed obelisk was built, the urban landmark that represents Buenos Aires on all the postcards.1 It is a discreetly modernist object, full of right angles, white, and devoid of even a passing resemblance to the triumphal obelisks of the French capital.

Paris was never the sole European model for Buenos Aires, though Beaux Arts architecture set the tone for the elegant mansions constructed by the elite during the waning years of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth. Several ideas of what a city should be, among them the American metropolis par excellence, New York, served as models for the city on the Rio de la Plata. As modernization advances, the comparison with New York becomes an influential perspective: beneath the European imagination lies an American popular imagination. But both New York and Paris are, at their core, urban myths, in the sense that Georges Sorel used the term, which is to say, “systems of images” more than blueprints.

Le Corbusier emphasized among Buenos Aires’s unique characteristics the tiny houses erected by Italian artisans, simple little houses, that can easily be reduced to basic geometric forms. He also pointed out that, in contrast to the European cities bisected by their emblematic waterways (Rome, London, Florence, Paris, Budapest, Prague, etc.), Buenos Aires had been built such that it was nearly impossible to access the river as early as the end of the 1920s.

In reality, Buenos Aires doesn’t recall any of the cities of Europe, but rather, it is composed of fragments taken from several of them. There abound, in the richest quarters, the French-style petits-hotels, with their slate rooftiles, but these do not set the tone of the city anymore than do the Italianate Casa de Gobierno, the eclectic Teatro Colón or the Congress building, the disciplined modern style of her first skyscrapers, or the English-style flourishes found at several suburban train stations. The Buenos Aires Zoo is a miniature city that evokes the stylistic mélange of the city that hosts it: Norman pavilions, pagodas, serpentariums that take their inspiration from industrial architecture or the world fairs.

Image: Buenos Aires’s Teatro Colón in 1908, Wikimedia Commons.

Nor was the culture of the Argentinean elite entirely “made in France.” Even Victoria Ocampo, who was considered the ultimate Francophone, was the translator of Virginia Woolf, and editor of Huxley, Nabokov, T. E. Lawrence, and Tagore. She founded her magazine Sur, for decades the most prestigious on the continent, at the urging of her American friend Waldo Frank and after experiencing the shock of the New York cultural scene. No one can seriously claim that Borges was a Francophile; on the contrary, he saved his most irreverent passages for icons of French culture, such as Proust. Argentine popular culture during the twenties looked to the United States, both as a model for its large daily papers and for the development of radio and cinema.

Buenos Aires was built according to European models applied to solving problems that were not the same as those in Europe.

Argentine culture has an inextricable relationship with translations of European work, but not just French work. The mixing of cultures is, by definitions, the mixing of diverse origins. The comparison of Buenos Aires to Paris (which, by the way, would never occur to any Frenchman, et pour cause) is an image of desire. This resulted from the political and cultural will of the elites who shaped the modern city starting in 1880. If someone had asked these men, they probably would have told him that Paris was the city they admired above all. But this practically inevitable fidelity (Paris was then the city the entire world admired) met with material limitations. Initiatives sprang forth that could not easily be reduced to copying a single model but the creation of a city that could function as a modern metropolitan center.

The profile of the Buenos Aires imagined by the elites and which they managed, in part, to build, has its originality in the combination of different technological, urban, and aesthetic models. As with Argentine culture, originality is to be found in the diverse elements that come together to form a mixture—seized, transformed, and then deformed by an enormous mechanism of translation. Buenos Aires is a translation of Europe, of many conflicting languages and urban narratives, refracted by the inescapable fact of its location in America. There is as much imitation as there is bricolage and recycling.

Buenos Aires was built according to European models applied to solving problems that were not the same as those in Europe. In the first place, because, in contrast to European cities, in Buenos Aires, things began nearly from scratch. There is the immense Río de la Plata, unchanging, and, on occasion, menacing when it overflows its banks to flood nearby neighborhoods. As Le Corbusier was quick to note, the city’s relationship to the river is one of progressive estrangement. When Le Corbusier visited Buenos Aires in 1929, one could no longer see the river no matter where one stood. Facing the river, a stretch of plains with an equally unchanging and unattractive landscape. Above these plains, a handful of old buildings, lacking a strong identity or great aesthetic value: the colonial customs house, since demolished, the old market, also demolished, the viceregal hall, now missing one of its wings, a few leftover colonial houses which stood out more for their spacious courtyards than their architectural refinement, two or three churches, the considerable English warehouses of the port, the iron architecture of a few train stations.

It was in this land poor in historical buildings that Buenos Aires was invented. This lack of urban history was for years an obsession of the elite. It was discussed at length whether the primitive pyramid erected in honor of the May 1810 Revolution, the first act in the fight for independence from Spain, ought to be preserved; it was discussed whether a city that was new and lacked an identity ought to permit one of its few monuments to be dedicated to a foreign hero such as Garibaldi; it was discussed whether it was worth preserving the so-called House of the Vicereine, an old colonial structure in complete ruin in the city’s southern region. These controversies, which occupied the elite from 1890 to 1920, are not secondary matters. At a symbolic level, they indicate the historical void the city felt to be its original shortcoming.

To this historical void was added the symbolic void of the plains, which were soon to take on a geometric form according to the city’s prevailing design. European travelers and the Argentinean intellectuals who had traveled throughout Europe opined that Buenos Aires was a monotonous city. When the novelist Manuel Gálvez returned from Europe, in the second decade of the twentieth century, he felt despair at re-encountering a Buenos Aires that wanted for the picturesque urban landscapes that defined the cities and villages of Spain that he had recently visited. The modernity of Buenos Aires, a city that had been deliberately planned, seemed to him plain and featureless. His disillusionment with the city when compared with Europe proved an obstacle to recognizing that the monotonous city of the pampas was technically more European than many of those he had visited in Spain and Italy.

In fact, Buenos Aires already had by then a line of subway trains (opened in 1913), a modern port, paved streets, parks designed by landscape architects, grand public buildings, a sewer system, telephone and electric lines. Moreover, what was peculiar about Buenos Aires was that these services were distributed in a relatively equitable manner, reaching both the richest neighborhoods and the poorest.2 The layout of the streets was exasperatingly geometric; the elite had decided to preserve the checkerboard pattern from colonial times and expand it, in lieu of opting for more interesting urban designs that were less rigid and more charming.

 

Streets, Streets, Streets

Each neighborhood repeats a pattern of square blocks that are formally identical to those of the city center. The one hundred-meter-long block is the platonic ideal of the modern city: the monotony of its geometry provides an abrupt separation of the city from nature. At the same time it lacks an erratic and varied landscape, the city also fails to replace it with a more attractive design that would distinguish it from the surrounding pampas. Buenos Aires begins to take form. Above the plains that surround it and reach into it, the city imposes a simple form that mirrors the meridians that stretch across the infinite landscapes. In theory, Buenos Aires is complete even though many of her streets only connect one empty lot to another. It is the geometrical orilla, or edge, of the pampas, the threshold and margin where the countryside sometimes stretches into the city, and where the city sometimes reaches the countryside. Its status as orilla (whose adjective form orillera in the Spanish of the Rio de la Plata can also mean untamed, on the margins, even criminal) can be thought of as a reflection of the Argentina built since the mid-nineteenth century, in the most remote part of America, finis terrae where European immigrants set off in search of an El Dorado that the Spanish failed to find centuries before.  Buenos Aires, at the edge of Europe.

Near the end of the forties, Héctor A. Murena wrote a book where he lays out this idea of finis terrae. Its title is El pecado original de América (America’s Original Sin). Its argument is simple, like that of a tragedy. In Europe, men live in a land where several layers of history lie atop one another. When the plow sinks into the soil, the earth remembers its having been plowed for centuries. After generations and generations, the history of the land mingled with human history: “At my childhood home, in Asturias,” an immigrant once said to me, “is the table where my great-grandparents once ate.” For Murena, the American experience is the deprivation of this past: America is a continent cast outside history. The Europeans who arrived in America abandoned a land where it was possible to find meaning and established themselves in a void. They neither could nor wanted to construct there a community where time accumulated as history and memory. They built cities and societies overnight, dedicated entirely to the future. For this reason, the American condition is, forever, that condition of being cast out from the world.

Though they never butted heads, it’s clear that Borges did not share Murena’s radically pessimistic perspective. His idea of Buenos Aires is less tragic but more troublesome than Murena’s. It captures the contradiction between different cultural dimensions, an unresolved contradiction, and not simply a case of deprivation. For Borges, Buenos Aires is—materially and symbolically—the orilla, which is to say a space that never belongs to one side or the other, a frontier and also a margin.

But let us return to the construction of Buenos Aires. For centuries, the occupation of the plains bordering the river was a gradual process. But following the conclusion of civil wars and a genocidal operation through which the last pre-Hispanic inhabitants were cornered, eliminated, and displaced, after the defeat of traditionalist factions in the provinces and the bloody unification of national territory in the final third of the nineteenth century, Buenos Aires embarked on a period of accelerated growth theretofore unseen.

In a 1929 newspaper piece, Roberto Arlt describes the city that is taking shape:

As with theater scenery after the lights have gone out and only the backstage curtain remains, one sees homes cut in half, rooms where, by a miracle, the wrecking ball has spared a bit of goldleaf or a stamp reading “La Vie Parisienne.” Skeletons of reinforced concrete structures more beautiful than any woman. Drainpipes. Arc lamps twinkling in basements of yellow earth as the chain of the electric crane creaks. . .3

Arlt compares the city under construction with theatrical scenery because Buenos Aires was remaking itself at a furious pace, almost too quickly to erase the signs of what had been only a short time before, as with the houses cut in half, because their façade ran along one of the grand avenues. As with the theater, work was performed day and night, beneath the light of the electric arcs, this technological icon of modern illumination. The city was built in a sort of paradoxically methodical frenzy, as though everything had to be in working condition the very next day. Buenos Aires was in constant change, almost overnight, to the extent that its streets are widened or entire blocks of buildings demolished to give way to the diagonal street plans of modernist city fathers. This was the scene that was to represent the modern metropolis, as an act of urbanist zeal.

Our literature, especially that of Arlt and Oliverio Girondo, portrays this new city through use of the avant-garde collage: the city, more than a space-time continuum, is a montage of fragmented images. Between 1920 and 1930, the rupture in our experience of time, the effect of technology and modern communication systems, creates the impression that the city had no preservable past, that everything that had come before could be axed and that there was nothing but only the construction of the new would profit the city. The metropolis (that Buenos Aires longed to be) is a historical eruption.

Fifty years before the night that Arlt discovered this stagelike city, Buenos Aires was occupied by buildings only along the old south central zone, next to the customs house, the port, the Casa de Gobierno, and calle Florida. The rest was splotches of isolated houses dotting muddy expansions. But in 1929, these enormous empty spaces shrank. The city, which earlier merged with the plains that encompassed it, was already quite fully a city, and to such an extent that much of what had been built only recently was demolished to make way for streets and avenues worthy of a grand capital.

But there was precedent for the acceleration that took place in 1929. In 1918, Katherine Dreier, an American traveler who was a friend of Marcel Duchamp, discovered that in this city that so desired to be cosmopolitan, not even the best hotels rented rooms to women traveling alone. The city and the condition of women in it appeared to her the product of a conservative and traditional Hispanic culture. Buenos Aires doesn’t capture her attention as the “Paris of the South” she had heard of, for two reasons: the monotony of the rectangular grid on the one hand, and the absence of a rich and active social life in its public spaces, on the other. More than Paris, Buenos Aires reminds her of Brooklyn. Most likely, Dreier was not far off:

One beautiful avenue, called the Avenida de Mayo, extends just more than a mile long and might easily recall a Parisian boulevard, with its trees and the many cafés whose tables and chairs occupy the sidewalk. But how unlike Paris in reality! Here one rarely sees a woman and, unlike Paris, only men frequent the cafés (. . .) Buenos Aires was constantly reminding me of Brooklyn. There was only a small section that was interesting and amusing, and the rest was endless, endless vistas of streets. Sometimes with good pavement, sometimes with bad, but just streets, streets, streets.4

Also in 1918, a traveler who was already well known in Parisian and New York artistic circles, Marcel Duchamp, disembarks with the idea of spending a period in Buenos Aires. He knows no one and his visit is practically a secret, he leaves no traces nor does his stay elicit the notice of a single Argentinean. Bored by a city that he sees as nothing more than a village, Duchamp returns in 1919 to the United States. In letters he wrote during his stay, his judgments are often harsh and full of disdain. To him, Buenos Aires is nothing more than a provincial town, devoid of culture, where no one knows anything about contemporary art and where the elite lack refinement.5 Dreier forms the same impression about the artistic tastes of this same elite, who—according to her—choose to decorate their palaces with art pompier and haven’t a clue about modern architecture.

Neither Dreier nor Duchamp were in a position to capture what lay behind and beneath this checkerboard of arrow-straight streets whose rigid pattern is, without a doubt, singularly anti-picturesque. These straight streets, “only streets,” stretching into infinity, are the geometric machine of modern Buenos Aires, which allow it to grow at an unheard-of pace and multiply its suburbs in a few short decades. Beneath these straight streets are wastewater pipes and the tunnels of the first subway line; and on the surface, following the lines of the grid, the tramway rails, the electric and telephone lines. This, which naturally was hardly impressive to visitors from New York, was the foundation of the urban modernization upon which, a few short years later, the processes of cultural modernization were built.

The tapestry of subterranean and aerial public services and transport, which Dreier and Duchamp overlooked, formed one of the most dynamic layers of the city. They overlooked not only these technical advances but the urbanist will to design a city that was orderly, harmonious. Without a doubt, less illustrious visitors who arrived to stay, European immigrants, encountered material conditions unknown to them in their native villages.

 

The Urban Vision and Immigration

Buenos Aires was a city of immigrants. The first thing that must be said is that in the cities of Latin America, people were always arriving from somewhere else: these cities are the product of enormous demographic shifts. During the Spanish colonial period, using methods that were often bloody, several thousand Spanish settlers established a colony on the lands belonging to the original Americans. Thus was founded a hispano-criollo society, with varying degrees of miscegenation. In the Rio de la Plata, the Spanish colony was poor and knew nothing like the baroque ornamentation of the great viceregal capitals of Mexico City, Lima, and Bogotá. The colonial structures that survive in Buenos Aires are inconspicuous examples of neoclassical architecture or else simple white churches. There has never been anything befitting a viceregal court or even mestizo art because there were also few great indigenous cultures in the Rio de la Plata prior to the Spanish conquest.

Until the final third of the nineteenth century, the main characteristic of the rural economy was a social structure composed of wealthy landowners and gauchos coerced by the job market and the police to become farmhands. Buenos Aires was a muddy village, free of large buildings, lacking parks or public works, decimated from time to time by a plague that spread via the open sewers, makeshift buildings, and the slaughterhouses near the city center. Only after 1870 did the city begin to exercise cultural influence and begin to think of itself as a future cosmopolitan center. The formula devised by the modernizing elite could be summed up as urban growth plus immigration.

The idea of the city and the idea of an enormous population shift had been intertwined since Sarmiento, for whom the sprawling plains where rural culture thrives were the ideal setting for despotism, and the port cities, hospitable to foreigners, presented an ideal space for a modern republic. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, who was an admirer of the yeomen farmers’ republic of the United States, believed in the civilizing power of the city, where civic virtues could triumph over resistant traditionalists to civilize the pampa (yeomen farmers, schools left and right, and a strong city from which the central government would rule). For him, as for many nineteenth-century men, the city was a pedagogical entity in itself. The urban setting imparts practical lessons and ought to function as an edifying teaching mechanism. City life is etymologically and symbolically a civilizing act. Immigrants were a central piece of this project.

Between 1880 and the First World War, tens of thousands of immigrants arrived in Buenos Aires. Most were Spanish and Italians, but also Germans, Russians, Central European Jews, and Asians. The Spanish and Italian majorities did not entirely correspond to the ideal immigrant of the elite’s dreams (they had hoped for artisans and Nordic peasants who, for their part, quite sensibly chose to immigrate to the United States).

At any rate, in the early years of the twentieth century, Buenos Aires was a city of foreigners (half of its inhabitants came from somewhere else). Newspapers were published in Italian, German, Yiddish; in 1910, as the nation celebrated the centenary of its independence from Spain and underwent all the rites of national reaffirmation, in the streets of Buenos Aires could be heard these exotic languages or a Spanish with a certain Iberian accent.

In addition to the hispano-criollo population, there was now a foreign population whose members were younger and whose women gave birth to more children. In mere decades, these immigrants and their children born in Argentina outnumber those of the hispano-criollo base dating back to the viceregal court. These Europeans arrived from their tiny villages to a city that seems immense because of its swaths of surviving pampa. They were not cosmopolitan, they simply came from abroad. One Italian immigrant told of the shock produced by Buenos Aires. He’d come from a rural village perched naturally against a hill, encompassed by the work of centuries in a landscape whose rocks formed the walls of the church and of the houses. His village amounted to nothing, it was the size of a neighborhood in Buenos Aires. This immigrant, like the thousands who arrived before him, had to leave the village behind to set down roots in this city. Even though they would never lose their status as foreigners, they realized complex negotiations through which they’d begun to think that their home might be found on this edge of America.

In Buenos Aires, it was not only the elite who fused urban models: immigration led to a large-scale fusion of cultural identities. At the end of this process (and only for the children of these immigrants) political citizenship and the right to call the city their own awaited.

This overlap of cultural identities brings with it disillusionment and conflict. The hispano-criollo city did not recognize itself in the city of immigrants; the city, which before was the public domain of the elites, was converted into a space where everyone begins to circulate. The network of direct relations that characterized village life was destroyed. Buenos Aires is occupied by “strangers,” the recently arrived who don’t answer (and would not answer in any part of America) to the standard which the elite had defined as “desirable” foreigners for the consolidation of civil society and the job market. Europe’s poor, as illiterate as the gauchos, but who supposedly were to disembark bringing their customs of order and industry, crammed into the port of Buenos Aires.

 

Fears

In 1910, an important historian and critic, Ricardo Rojas, rendered an alarming diagnosis of the presence of foreigners in Buenos Aires.6 He is petrified at seeing the posters in shop windows, written in Yiddish, in Polish, in Italian; the various societies founded by the Italians, who display the photo of King Umberto or of Mazzini; the daily newspapers and the patriotic celebrations of these groups; the Jews with their long coats and hats occupying certain regions of Buenos Aires and erecting there their temples. Rojas has no desire to get rid of the recently arrived, but he is worried about establishing them under a sort of guardianship of the hispano-criollo elite. He does not want them to remain in their ghettos, but quite the contrary, to force them to mix. Education, it seems to him, is the key to this assimilation. And, in fact, it was. The children of these immigrants were alphabetized and nationalized in schools that were public, secular, free, and mandatory for girls and boys, and where all cultural divisions were stamped out. The public school taught—by force—what it was to be Argentinean.

Image credit: Dorot Jewish Division, The New York Public Library.

The Jews fascinated for their more extreme foreignness and incurred the very first waves of anti-Semitism. Even those who were not anti-Semitic describe them as exotic children:

Men who speak a language drier and rougher than desert sand (. . .) Their words crackle and pop or else grovel—guttural, nasal, and unintelligible. Sometimes these burly men play like children, pushing each other’s shoulders, run into the middle of the street, scream like dogs, and soon, once again, recover their stealth beat and carry on talking.7

This ethnic mix changes the colors and sounds of the city. Twenty years after Ricardo Rojas and his fearful warnings, the process had imposed itself by force and had profoundly remade the public imagination, daily life, and politics. Immigrants brought with them trade unions and anarchism, too; it is these foreigners who foster the earliest socialist movements, movements whose leaders belong, on the other hand, to the university-going middle class. Political ideologies, forms of labor organization, strategies of struggle and mobilization, via unions and strikes, provide the elite still more cause for alarm. The Babel of foreign languages, changes in customs, strikes and workers movements, and the appearance of intellectuals of immigrant origin (very different phenomena nonetheless imagined to be related) are felt as threats to the nation’s cultural unity.

Public debate during the first three decades of the twentieth century revolve around the European origins of the Argentine racial mix and whether the cultural preeminence of the hispano-criollo elite ought to be preserved in the face of so much immigrant-induced disorder. What does it mean to be Argentinean? Who has the right to define the limits of this cultural field where everything is beginning to blur? Ricardo Güiraldes, Francophile and friend to Valéry Larbaud, a dandy and wealthy rural landowner, sensed the veiled threat in these questions. On the one hand, the gaucho, as national figure, had been transformed into a day laborer on large estates; the criollo virtues that had been conferred upon him were disappearing along with these mythological torch-bearers of Argentine nationality who, in reality, were used as cannon fodder during civil wars or pawns in political disputes between oligarchs. But, once the gaucho had disappeared, the foreigner could offer nothing but his foreignness. This defect formed the base upon which the future of Argentina had to be imagined.

Güiraldes writes the final novel of the “rural cycle.” His unique mark is that he writes about the gaucho theme with “the metaphors of the then current literary circles of Montmartre,” as Borges ironically pointed out. This wildly successful novel, Don Segundo Sombra, published in 1927, takes as its characters the last literary gauchos, the final protagonists to perform rural work with the cheerful disinterest of Homeric combatants. But the novel fails almost entirely to account for the presence of those immigrants who were already extending their houses across the plain. And when a foreigner is mentioned, it’s to say that he’s sold his daughter into prostitution.

 

Flaneurs and Tramps

The heirs of the hispano-criollo elite felt that the nation’s racial, cultural, and linguistic “authenticity” was under fire. “Our city is called Babel,” Borges wrote in Inquisiciones (Inquisitions). Others, such as Oliverio Girondo, a fellow traveler of Borges and Güiraldes in their avant-garde crusade, took this loss of “authenticity” and molded it into a style. In the twenties, Girondo travels throughout Europe and compiles a book of poems about his stops along the way. To these European postcard-cities (Venice, Seville, Douarnez) he adds others from Buenos Aires, in which he laments not the loss of organicism or the absence of the past but rather looks to shed light on the fragmentation of the individual and his experience in the urban setting. Girondo’s solution to the question of foreignness consists of raising the bet: Europe is every bit as fragmentary, as dull as Buenos Aires; even when some corner of Europe appears excessively weighed down by history, Girondo introduces an ironic cue: in a Duchampian gesture, he situates a Spanish virgin next to a bidet.

Arlt—a child of immigrants and hardly a member of the hispano-criollo elite—also took note of the foreignness that, anyway, was inscribed in his very name, which he himself knew to be unpronounceable according to Spanish phonetics. Arlt writes:

Buenos Aires has four recovas,8 four recovas that are refuges from misery, a display window onto vagrancy, the museum of poverty; four recovas that are like the four cardinal points of human misery; four recovas that are the cauldron of filth, the avenue of grime, the boulevard of squalor, the valley of the ragged, the Cosmopolitan Court of Miracles for the Lice-Stricken; four recovas but a singular sadness: that of empty pockets, that of women who’d lost their way, that of immigrants without hope, that of the defeated without any refuge.9

Arlt had a keen understanding of the contradictions of the cosmopolitan city: the fragmentation of subjectivities produced by the metropolitan shock, the experiences that resist translation, the collapse of any illusion of organicism. The city, which is literally full of people as never before, is not only the flâneur’s paradise, the shop window full of goods, the voyeur or the exhibitionist’s refuge of anonymity, but also a desert: a desolate place, where the abstract relations of a triumphant capitalism impose themselves upon the most archaic forms of community. One lives in “a desert embedded in the heart of the city.”10

Those roaming the streets are not always flâneurs, the chic, dandies, or artists; in the Buenos Aires of the thirties, the unemployed, the immigrants whose dreams went unfulfilled, their children, and the new migrants that begin to arrive not from Europe but from the countryside provinces also roam the streets. In Buenos Aires, it’s possible to feel not only fascination at this shock but also the solitude of the big cities where there are flâneurs, of course, who dominate the urban cultural landscape. But there are also those who roam the streets and experience ostracism and solitude because they are marginal figures within the great urban machine whose workings are ever more abstract. Pulsing, the market embraces to later cast out. It also reshapes popular culture.

 

The Masses

In these same decades, the twenties and—above all—the thirties, there occur three fundamental events in modern popular culture: the spread of football as the national sport, which is rapidly professionalized; the implantation of radio and major dailies, the morning tabloids, sensationalist evening papers, full of illustrations; and the apogee of tango, which produces not only a repertoire of songs but also films and grand theatrical spectacles. All this speaks of the new masses that materially and symbolically begin to occupy urban space.

The subject of the masses (a topic first addressed by Ortega y Gasset in Spain, then introduced in Argentina in a great success) would become an obsession in pessimistic essays about the city. Ezequiel Martínez Estrada wrote two fundamental works about modern Argentina: Radiografía de la pampa (1933) and La cabeza de Goliat (1940). The first is an essay about the country’s historic formation since the Spanish conquest; the second deals with urban culture in Río de la Plata.

Martínez Estrada argued that Buenos Aires was the byproduct of the humus of the plains that surrounded it, that even the skyscrapers were successive layers of this clay and damp earth. As it grew, Buenos Aires disguised, through buildings that acted as masks, the pampa that was its origin and would be its destiny. Buenos Aires had swelled by superimposing, by addition, by metastasis, by filling in the empty spaces that, nonetheless, never quite fulfill their potential. A passage from Radiografía de la pampa reads:

Along the length of a single block, each building speaks a unique temporal language, of different economic cycles, different styles, which allow one to see, as in the earth’s strata, the cataclysms that it has experienced. (. . .) Next to the one-story houses, others of two stories; and between these, empty lots and skyscrapers twenty, thirty stories high that stretch skyward like the dominant ambition (. . .) A skyscraper on one block of low-rise buildings, next to lots that still retain their unspoiled grassland, is a sign of this very ambition and its opposite, a certain wreckage : the fracture in a stretch of land that is entirely developed. (. . .) Above the structure of one floor, which formed the earlier city, another city appears to have begun to be built. (. . .) In the beginning, the city was built atop the earth; today, one takes the ground floor as a foundation, and one-story homes become the empty lots for homes of two or more floors. For this reason, Buenos Aires maintains the structure of the pampa: it is the plains over which yet another plain is superimposed, as with sand or loess, over and over again.11

On these chaotic plains, the Spanish colony had been nothing more than an extended enterprise dedicated to plunder. And immigration, Martínez Estrada averred, brought its desire for profit, its unbridled ambition, its immediatist impulse, the malevolent heterogeneity of those who had lost their roots.

Stylistically and culturally, the heterogeneous city is viewed as undesirable disorder. Victoria Ocampo claimed for Buenos Aires no longer the whimsical, picturesque landscapes of European villages that other intellectuals pined for but a pattern to its houses that alternated between the same set of stylistic features. In this heterogeneous city without the historical powers to contain and give order to its diverse elements, the masses soon become even more threatening. They consist not only of European immigrants but their children, and other migrants, the criollos and mestizos arriving from the countryside provinces to settle down on the edge of the city. Whoever they are, they are always unfamiliar multitudes who put their difference on parade.

By the 1940s, Buenos Aires, which believed itself a metropolis before it actually became one, had assumed the attributes intellectuals had learned to fear in modern societies: the masses live in the city, the city is the scene of the masses, this amorphous entity, ungovernable and unsubject to rules of reason or of morality; they give a glimpse of what, just a few years later, would become the Peronist multitudes.

The city, the stage for Peronism, has all the hallmarks of its metropolitan modernity and none of the political vicissitudes of the fifties and sixties could change this. Buenos Aires the city is already predominately white, surrounded by prosperous suburbs, working-class neighborhoods, and shantytowns. Modernity has made good on some of its promises while revealing its inequities and inherent conflicts.

 

End of an Era

The end of this era arrives in 1976 with the military dictatorship. During these terrible years, the military promotes a vision for Buenos Aires that is technocratic, an authoritarian modernization, which begins with the expulsion of the poor and of migrants to the outer edges of the city center and reinforcement of material inequalities that divided the rich and poor areas of the city as never before. It is at this time that the highways that practically arrived at the city center are built, leaving deep wounds in the fabric of historical neighborhoods. The technification of the city is a powerful trend that continues to gain steam; some regions of Buenos Aires have been practically rebuilt according to the model of the urban, communication, and telecommunications advances of major metropoles of the end of the century.

Nevertheless, in the cultural and artistic imagination, the city is frequently viewed as a landscape of decay. The optimism of the elites at the end of the nineteenth century has given way to market forces in an urban space converted into the scene of big business. The elites near the end of the nineteenth century sought to shape a modern city for a population that was to arrive from Europe. Their project had contributed to inclusiveness, even if their modernization came from on high, buoyed by the rationale that these immigrant masses would receive an education that would transform them into citizens.

Capitalism, in its current form, lacks protagonists with this level of political and cultural consciousness that melds reformist impulse with authoritarianism. The urban market is not a public square. Capital doesn’t defend cities, it defends business interests in those cities.

In the face of such changes, the city that sought a homogeneous and European identity does not recognize itself in the masses of the poor—be they Argentineans or citizens of neighboring countries—who occupy the neighborhoods along its periphery and the decaying streets of the city center. Buenos Aires has been fractured in a way that reveals itself much more easily than the divide between a rich north and a poor southern region. In a memorable short story, Borges wrote that to cross into the city’s southern region was to enter another dimension in time. Today, the city’s southern region is Buenos Aires’s other face, the one shown to tourists, where locals take their foreign visitors.

On the other hand, Borges’s never-ending orillas, which soon became shantytowns or were transformed into working-class neighborhoods, are today a no man’s land of violence and unemployment. Buenos Aires, the proud city that mixed European models, has arrived at its “South American destiny,” with gated communities that serve as refuge to the affluent, millionaire ghettoes, and a historic center that is part slum.

The city is a historic map. Atop the optimistic blueprint of the nineteenth century, atop the monuments and public buildings of its glory days, there now appears a new system of highways and digital information networks. The new foreigners in this city are the poor—Asian immigrants, the rural dwellers expelled from their hometowns by unemployment. The Buenos Aires of the nineties is going through evident transformations: the greatest of these is the exodus from the city to the suburbs by the economic elites and those from the middle rungs who have managed to adapt to the city’s neoliberal transformation; secondly, the transformation of the city center into tourist attraction (where major international hotels now stand), the “museumification” of parts of the city chosen for their picturesque visuals, their prior inhabitants evicted by beautification projects, and areas of total decay where street vendors abound alongside the homeless and those excluded from the job market.

The city is the recipient of large-scale international investments that make use of the city’s past as decoration; along with these capitalist enterprises, the expansion of decaying regions, where urban technification and architectural postmodernism have yet to arrive. Some of the traditionally vibrant neighborhoods of Buenos Aires have entered decline: there we find hotels serving migrants from the provinces or other corners of Latin America, old houses in ruins yet to be discovered by some developer interested in recycling them, second-class city services, a lack of security.

What has brought this cycle to a definitive end is the very idea of the city as a cruel and seductive place stimulating to all sorts of innovation. The city is no longer viewed a desirable scene. The imagination is captured by a sort of country kitsch, according to which gated communities carry names that evoke the hispano-criollo past in modest lots of two hundred square yards, or become deterritorialized amid enormous suburban shopping centers peppered along major highways. Between the country kitsch neighborhoods and the globalized camp of the shopping malls, Buenos Aires is host to a continuum of eight million inhabitants.

But no one can any longer accuse the city of imitating Paris, a city that jealously guards its status as such, in the same way Manhattan and Berlin do. The European exile has come to an end. Now, in all likelihood, the image of paradise is some American suburb. And the foreigners here today are split between Latin America’s poor and tourists crisscrossing the northern part of the city, their handy guides at the ready to inform them that Buenos Aires is America’s most European city.


1. See Adrián Gorelik and Graciela Silvestri, “El pasado como futuro. Una utopía reactiva en Buenos Aires,” in Punto de Vista #41, April 1992.

2. See Adrián Gorelik, La grilla y el parque, Bernal, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, 1998; and Miradas sobre Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Siglo XXI, 2004.

3. Roberto Arlt, “Corrientes, por la noche,” El Mundo, 26 de mayo de 1929, found in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana (selection and prologue by Sylvia Saítta), Buenos Aires, Alianza, 1993, p. 33.

4. Katherine S. Dreier, Five Months in the Argentine from a Woman’s Point of View; 1918 to 1919, New York, Fredric Fairchild Sherman, 1920, p. 13.

5. See Gonzalo Aguilar, Buenos Aires ready-made (Marcel Duchamp en Argentina, 1918-1919), Buenos Aires, Ediciones del Pirata, 1996; and Marcel Duchamp, Milan, Bompiani, 1993 (Exhibition Catalog from Venice, 1993).

6. Ricardo Rojas, La restauración nacionalista, Buenos Aires, Imprenta de la Penitenciaría, 1910.

7. Roberto Arlt, “Sirio libaneses en el centro,” El Mundo, July 23, 1933, in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., pp. 89-90.

8. Recovas are covered markets or storefronts situated beneath arcade walkways. They once dotted the landscape of Buenos Aires and are considered emblems of the city.

9. Roberto Arlt, “Las cuatro recovas,” El Mundo, January 17, 1929, in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., p. 12.

10. Roberto Arlt, “El desierto en la ciudad,” El Mundo, January 26, 1929, in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., p. 16.

11. Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Radiografía de la pampa (ed. Leo Pollmann), Madrid, Colección Archivos, 1991 [1933], pp. 149-150.

“Buenos Aires: Exílio de Europa” © 2007 by Beatriz Sarlo. By arrangement with the publisher. Translation © 2018 by Eric M. B. Becker and Julia Tomasini. All rights reserved.

English Spanish (Original)

Among the many commonplaces about Buenos Aires, I’ll mention but two. The first panders to the Argentinean ego and is especially inaccurate: Buenos Aires resembles Paris. The second was a criticism that could be heard for decades from the mouths of these same Argentineans who would drive themselves into a frenzy imagining themselves heirs of a certain Frenchness. Differently from that which purported a similarity to Paris, the second observation is right on the mark: Buenos Aires is a redundant and monotonous city. What’s curious is that Argentineans adhere to both verdicts, despite the fact they contradict one another. Let’s start with the first.

Buenos Aires is not like Paris because, commonplaces aside, the projects that have shaped it since the first third of the nineteenth century fused models from distinct European origins. Naturally, it was desirable to have large avenues (which are not Paris’s private domain, by the way); some of these strongly recall those of Madrid and Barcelona. But the grand public edifices (which form veritable landmarks) are not invariably of French inspiration: their façades are neoclassical, Italianate, eclectic, art deco, even expressionist and modernist. In the thirties, the famed obelisk was built, the urban landmark that represents Buenos Aires on all the postcards.1 It is a discreetly modernist object, full of right angles, white, and devoid of even a passing resemblance to the triumphal obelisks of the French capital.

Paris was never the sole European model for Buenos Aires, though Beaux Arts architecture set the tone for the elegant mansions constructed by the elite during the waning years of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth. Several ideas of what a city should be, among them the American metropolis par excellence, New York, served as models for the city on the Rio de la Plata. As modernization advances, the comparison with New York becomes an influential perspective: beneath the European imagination lies an American popular imagination. But both New York and Paris are, at their core, urban myths, in the sense that Georges Sorel used the term, which is to say, “systems of images” more than blueprints.

Le Corbusier emphasized among Buenos Aires’s unique characteristics the tiny houses erected by Italian artisans, simple little houses, that can easily be reduced to basic geometric forms. He also pointed out that, in contrast to the European cities bisected by their emblematic waterways (Rome, London, Florence, Paris, Budapest, Prague, etc.), Buenos Aires had been built such that it was nearly impossible to access the river as early as the end of the 1920s.

In reality, Buenos Aires doesn’t recall any of the cities of Europe, but rather, it is composed of fragments taken from several of them. There abound, in the richest quarters, the French-style petits-hotels, with their slate rooftiles, but these do not set the tone of the city anymore than do the Italianate Casa de Gobierno, the eclectic Teatro Colón or the Congress building, the disciplined modern style of her first skyscrapers, or the English-style flourishes found at several suburban train stations. The Buenos Aires Zoo is a miniature city that evokes the stylistic mélange of the city that hosts it: Norman pavilions, pagodas, serpentariums that take their inspiration from industrial architecture or the world fairs.

Image: Buenos Aires’s Teatro Colón in 1908, Wikimedia Commons.

Nor was the culture of the Argentinean elite entirely “made in France.” Even Victoria Ocampo, who was considered the ultimate Francophone, was the translator of Virginia Woolf, and editor of Huxley, Nabokov, T. E. Lawrence, and Tagore. She founded her magazine Sur, for decades the most prestigious on the continent, at the urging of her American friend Waldo Frank and after experiencing the shock of the New York cultural scene. No one can seriously claim that Borges was a Francophile; on the contrary, he saved his most irreverent passages for icons of French culture, such as Proust. Argentine popular culture during the twenties looked to the United States, both as a model for its large daily papers and for the development of radio and cinema.

Buenos Aires was built according to European models applied to solving problems that were not the same as those in Europe.

Argentine culture has an inextricable relationship with translations of European work, but not just French work. The mixing of cultures is, by definitions, the mixing of diverse origins. The comparison of Buenos Aires to Paris (which, by the way, would never occur to any Frenchman, et pour cause) is an image of desire. This resulted from the political and cultural will of the elites who shaped the modern city starting in 1880. If someone had asked these men, they probably would have told him that Paris was the city they admired above all. But this practically inevitable fidelity (Paris was then the city the entire world admired) met with material limitations. Initiatives sprang forth that could not easily be reduced to copying a single model but the creation of a city that could function as a modern metropolitan center.

The profile of the Buenos Aires imagined by the elites and which they managed, in part, to build, has its originality in the combination of different technological, urban, and aesthetic models. As with Argentine culture, originality is to be found in the diverse elements that come together to form a mixture—seized, transformed, and then deformed by an enormous mechanism of translation. Buenos Aires is a translation of Europe, of many conflicting languages and urban narratives, refracted by the inescapable fact of its location in America. There is as much imitation as there is bricolage and recycling.

Buenos Aires was built according to European models applied to solving problems that were not the same as those in Europe. In the first place, because, in contrast to European cities, in Buenos Aires, things began nearly from scratch. There is the immense Río de la Plata, unchanging, and, on occasion, menacing when it overflows its banks to flood nearby neighborhoods. As Le Corbusier was quick to note, the city’s relationship to the river is one of progressive estrangement. When Le Corbusier visited Buenos Aires in 1929, one could no longer see the river no matter where one stood. Facing the river, a stretch of plains with an equally unchanging and unattractive landscape. Above these plains, a handful of old buildings, lacking a strong identity or great aesthetic value: the colonial customs house, since demolished, the old market, also demolished, the viceregal hall, now missing one of its wings, a few leftover colonial houses which stood out more for their spacious courtyards than their architectural refinement, two or three churches, the considerable English warehouses of the port, the iron architecture of a few train stations.

It was in this land poor in historical buildings that Buenos Aires was invented. This lack of urban history was for years an obsession of the elite. It was discussed at length whether the primitive pyramid erected in honor of the May 1810 Revolution, the first act in the fight for independence from Spain, ought to be preserved; it was discussed whether a city that was new and lacked an identity ought to permit one of its few monuments to be dedicated to a foreign hero such as Garibaldi; it was discussed whether it was worth preserving the so-called House of the Vicereine, an old colonial structure in complete ruin in the city’s southern region. These controversies, which occupied the elite from 1890 to 1920, are not secondary matters. At a symbolic level, they indicate the historical void the city felt to be its original shortcoming.

To this historical void was added the symbolic void of the plains, which were soon to take on a geometric form according to the city’s prevailing design. European travelers and the Argentinean intellectuals who had traveled throughout Europe opined that Buenos Aires was a monotonous city. When the novelist Manuel Gálvez returned from Europe, in the second decade of the twentieth century, he felt despair at re-encountering a Buenos Aires that wanted for the picturesque urban landscapes that defined the cities and villages of Spain that he had recently visited. The modernity of Buenos Aires, a city that had been deliberately planned, seemed to him plain and featureless. His disillusionment with the city when compared with Europe proved an obstacle to recognizing that the monotonous city of the pampas was technically more European than many of those he had visited in Spain and Italy.

In fact, Buenos Aires already had by then a line of subway trains (opened in 1913), a modern port, paved streets, parks designed by landscape architects, grand public buildings, a sewer system, telephone and electric lines. Moreover, what was peculiar about Buenos Aires was that these services were distributed in a relatively equitable manner, reaching both the richest neighborhoods and the poorest.2 The layout of the streets was exasperatingly geometric; the elite had decided to preserve the checkerboard pattern from colonial times and expand it, in lieu of opting for more interesting urban designs that were less rigid and more charming.

 

Streets, Streets, Streets

Each neighborhood repeats a pattern of square blocks that are formally identical to those of the city center. The one hundred-meter-long block is the platonic ideal of the modern city: the monotony of its geometry provides an abrupt separation of the city from nature. At the same time it lacks an erratic and varied landscape, the city also fails to replace it with a more attractive design that would distinguish it from the surrounding pampas. Buenos Aires begins to take form. Above the plains that surround it and reach into it, the city imposes a simple form that mirrors the meridians that stretch across the infinite landscapes. In theory, Buenos Aires is complete even though many of her streets only connect one empty lot to another. It is the geometrical orilla, or edge, of the pampas, the threshold and margin where the countryside sometimes stretches into the city, and where the city sometimes reaches the countryside. Its status as orilla (whose adjective form orillera in the Spanish of the Rio de la Plata can also mean untamed, on the margins, even criminal) can be thought of as a reflection of the Argentina built since the mid-nineteenth century, in the most remote part of America, finis terrae where European immigrants set off in search of an El Dorado that the Spanish failed to find centuries before.  Buenos Aires, at the edge of Europe.

Near the end of the forties, Héctor A. Murena wrote a book where he lays out this idea of finis terrae. Its title is El pecado original de América (America’s Original Sin). Its argument is simple, like that of a tragedy. In Europe, men live in a land where several layers of history lie atop one another. When the plow sinks into the soil, the earth remembers its having been plowed for centuries. After generations and generations, the history of the land mingled with human history: “At my childhood home, in Asturias,” an immigrant once said to me, “is the table where my great-grandparents once ate.” For Murena, the American experience is the deprivation of this past: America is a continent cast outside history. The Europeans who arrived in America abandoned a land where it was possible to find meaning and established themselves in a void. They neither could nor wanted to construct there a community where time accumulated as history and memory. They built cities and societies overnight, dedicated entirely to the future. For this reason, the American condition is, forever, that condition of being cast out from the world.

Though they never butted heads, it’s clear that Borges did not share Murena’s radically pessimistic perspective. His idea of Buenos Aires is less tragic but more troublesome than Murena’s. It captures the contradiction between different cultural dimensions, an unresolved contradiction, and not simply a case of deprivation. For Borges, Buenos Aires is—materially and symbolically—the orilla, which is to say a space that never belongs to one side or the other, a frontier and also a margin.

But let us return to the construction of Buenos Aires. For centuries, the occupation of the plains bordering the river was a gradual process. But following the conclusion of civil wars and a genocidal operation through which the last pre-Hispanic inhabitants were cornered, eliminated, and displaced, after the defeat of traditionalist factions in the provinces and the bloody unification of national territory in the final third of the nineteenth century, Buenos Aires embarked on a period of accelerated growth theretofore unseen.

In a 1929 newspaper piece, Roberto Arlt describes the city that is taking shape:

As with theater scenery after the lights have gone out and only the backstage curtain remains, one sees homes cut in half, rooms where, by a miracle, the wrecking ball has spared a bit of goldleaf or a stamp reading “La Vie Parisienne.” Skeletons of reinforced concrete structures more beautiful than any woman. Drainpipes. Arc lamps twinkling in basements of yellow earth as the chain of the electric crane creaks. . .3

Arlt compares the city under construction with theatrical scenery because Buenos Aires was remaking itself at a furious pace, almost too quickly to erase the signs of what had been only a short time before, as with the houses cut in half, because their façade ran along one of the grand avenues. As with the theater, work was performed day and night, beneath the light of the electric arcs, this technological icon of modern illumination. The city was built in a sort of paradoxically methodical frenzy, as though everything had to be in working condition the very next day. Buenos Aires was in constant change, almost overnight, to the extent that its streets are widened or entire blocks of buildings demolished to give way to the diagonal street plans of modernist city fathers. This was the scene that was to represent the modern metropolis, as an act of urbanist zeal.

Our literature, especially that of Arlt and Oliverio Girondo, portrays this new city through use of the avant-garde collage: the city, more than a space-time continuum, is a montage of fragmented images. Between 1920 and 1930, the rupture in our experience of time, the effect of technology and modern communication systems, creates the impression that the city had no preservable past, that everything that had come before could be axed and that there was nothing but only the construction of the new would profit the city. The metropolis (that Buenos Aires longed to be) is a historical eruption.

Fifty years before the night that Arlt discovered this stagelike city, Buenos Aires was occupied by buildings only along the old south central zone, next to the customs house, the port, the Casa de Gobierno, and calle Florida. The rest was splotches of isolated houses dotting muddy expansions. But in 1929, these enormous empty spaces shrank. The city, which earlier merged with the plains that encompassed it, was already quite fully a city, and to such an extent that much of what had been built only recently was demolished to make way for streets and avenues worthy of a grand capital.

But there was precedent for the acceleration that took place in 1929. In 1918, Katherine Dreier, an American traveler who was a friend of Marcel Duchamp, discovered that in this city that so desired to be cosmopolitan, not even the best hotels rented rooms to women traveling alone. The city and the condition of women in it appeared to her the product of a conservative and traditional Hispanic culture. Buenos Aires doesn’t capture her attention as the “Paris of the South” she had heard of, for two reasons: the monotony of the rectangular grid on the one hand, and the absence of a rich and active social life in its public spaces, on the other. More than Paris, Buenos Aires reminds her of Brooklyn. Most likely, Dreier was not far off:

One beautiful avenue, called the Avenida de Mayo, extends just more than a mile long and might easily recall a Parisian boulevard, with its trees and the many cafés whose tables and chairs occupy the sidewalk. But how unlike Paris in reality! Here one rarely sees a woman and, unlike Paris, only men frequent the cafés (. . .) Buenos Aires was constantly reminding me of Brooklyn. There was only a small section that was interesting and amusing, and the rest was endless, endless vistas of streets. Sometimes with good pavement, sometimes with bad, but just streets, streets, streets.4

Also in 1918, a traveler who was already well known in Parisian and New York artistic circles, Marcel Duchamp, disembarks with the idea of spending a period in Buenos Aires. He knows no one and his visit is practically a secret, he leaves no traces nor does his stay elicit the notice of a single Argentinean. Bored by a city that he sees as nothing more than a village, Duchamp returns in 1919 to the United States. In letters he wrote during his stay, his judgments are often harsh and full of disdain. To him, Buenos Aires is nothing more than a provincial town, devoid of culture, where no one knows anything about contemporary art and where the elite lack refinement.5 Dreier forms the same impression about the artistic tastes of this same elite, who—according to her—choose to decorate their palaces with art pompier and haven’t a clue about modern architecture.

Neither Dreier nor Duchamp were in a position to capture what lay behind and beneath this checkerboard of arrow-straight streets whose rigid pattern is, without a doubt, singularly anti-picturesque. These straight streets, “only streets,” stretching into infinity, are the geometric machine of modern Buenos Aires, which allow it to grow at an unheard-of pace and multiply its suburbs in a few short decades. Beneath these straight streets are wastewater pipes and the tunnels of the first subway line; and on the surface, following the lines of the grid, the tramway rails, the electric and telephone lines. This, which naturally was hardly impressive to visitors from New York, was the foundation of the urban modernization upon which, a few short years later, the processes of cultural modernization were built.

The tapestry of subterranean and aerial public services and transport, which Dreier and Duchamp overlooked, formed one of the most dynamic layers of the city. They overlooked not only these technical advances but the urbanist will to design a city that was orderly, harmonious. Without a doubt, less illustrious visitors who arrived to stay, European immigrants, encountered material conditions unknown to them in their native villages.

 

The Urban Vision and Immigration

Buenos Aires was a city of immigrants. The first thing that must be said is that in the cities of Latin America, people were always arriving from somewhere else: these cities are the product of enormous demographic shifts. During the Spanish colonial period, using methods that were often bloody, several thousand Spanish settlers established a colony on the lands belonging to the original Americans. Thus was founded a hispano-criollo society, with varying degrees of miscegenation. In the Rio de la Plata, the Spanish colony was poor and knew nothing like the baroque ornamentation of the great viceregal capitals of Mexico City, Lima, and Bogotá. The colonial structures that survive in Buenos Aires are inconspicuous examples of neoclassical architecture or else simple white churches. There has never been anything befitting a viceregal court or even mestizo art because there were also few great indigenous cultures in the Rio de la Plata prior to the Spanish conquest.

Until the final third of the nineteenth century, the main characteristic of the rural economy was a social structure composed of wealthy landowners and gauchos coerced by the job market and the police to become farmhands. Buenos Aires was a muddy village, free of large buildings, lacking parks or public works, decimated from time to time by a plague that spread via the open sewers, makeshift buildings, and the slaughterhouses near the city center. Only after 1870 did the city begin to exercise cultural influence and begin to think of itself as a future cosmopolitan center. The formula devised by the modernizing elite could be summed up as urban growth plus immigration.

The idea of the city and the idea of an enormous population shift had been intertwined since Sarmiento, for whom the sprawling plains where rural culture thrives were the ideal setting for despotism, and the port cities, hospitable to foreigners, presented an ideal space for a modern republic. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, who was an admirer of the yeomen farmers’ republic of the United States, believed in the civilizing power of the city, where civic virtues could triumph over resistant traditionalists to civilize the pampa (yeomen farmers, schools left and right, and a strong city from which the central government would rule). For him, as for many nineteenth-century men, the city was a pedagogical entity in itself. The urban setting imparts practical lessons and ought to function as an edifying teaching mechanism. City life is etymologically and symbolically a civilizing act. Immigrants were a central piece of this project.

Between 1880 and the First World War, tens of thousands of immigrants arrived in Buenos Aires. Most were Spanish and Italians, but also Germans, Russians, Central European Jews, and Asians. The Spanish and Italian majorities did not entirely correspond to the ideal immigrant of the elite’s dreams (they had hoped for artisans and Nordic peasants who, for their part, quite sensibly chose to immigrate to the United States).

At any rate, in the early years of the twentieth century, Buenos Aires was a city of foreigners (half of its inhabitants came from somewhere else). Newspapers were published in Italian, German, Yiddish; in 1910, as the nation celebrated the centenary of its independence from Spain and underwent all the rites of national reaffirmation, in the streets of Buenos Aires could be heard these exotic languages or a Spanish with a certain Iberian accent.

In addition to the hispano-criollo population, there was now a foreign population whose members were younger and whose women gave birth to more children. In mere decades, these immigrants and their children born in Argentina outnumber those of the hispano-criollo base dating back to the viceregal court. These Europeans arrived from their tiny villages to a city that seems immense because of its swaths of surviving pampa. They were not cosmopolitan, they simply came from abroad. One Italian immigrant told of the shock produced by Buenos Aires. He’d come from a rural village perched naturally against a hill, encompassed by the work of centuries in a landscape whose rocks formed the walls of the church and of the houses. His village amounted to nothing, it was the size of a neighborhood in Buenos Aires. This immigrant, like the thousands who arrived before him, had to leave the village behind to set down roots in this city. Even though they would never lose their status as foreigners, they realized complex negotiations through which they’d begun to think that their home might be found on this edge of America.

In Buenos Aires, it was not only the elite who fused urban models: immigration led to a large-scale fusion of cultural identities. At the end of this process (and only for the children of these immigrants) political citizenship and the right to call the city their own awaited.

This overlap of cultural identities brings with it disillusionment and conflict. The hispano-criollo city did not recognize itself in the city of immigrants; the city, which before was the public domain of the elites, was converted into a space where everyone begins to circulate. The network of direct relations that characterized village life was destroyed. Buenos Aires is occupied by “strangers,” the recently arrived who don’t answer (and would not answer in any part of America) to the standard which the elite had defined as “desirable” foreigners for the consolidation of civil society and the job market. Europe’s poor, as illiterate as the gauchos, but who supposedly were to disembark bringing their customs of order and industry, crammed into the port of Buenos Aires.

 

Fears

In 1910, an important historian and critic, Ricardo Rojas, rendered an alarming diagnosis of the presence of foreigners in Buenos Aires.6 He is petrified at seeing the posters in shop windows, written in Yiddish, in Polish, in Italian; the various societies founded by the Italians, who display the photo of King Umberto or of Mazzini; the daily newspapers and the patriotic celebrations of these groups; the Jews with their long coats and hats occupying certain regions of Buenos Aires and erecting there their temples. Rojas has no desire to get rid of the recently arrived, but he is worried about establishing them under a sort of guardianship of the hispano-criollo elite. He does not want them to remain in their ghettos, but quite the contrary, to force them to mix. Education, it seems to him, is the key to this assimilation. And, in fact, it was. The children of these immigrants were alphabetized and nationalized in schools that were public, secular, free, and mandatory for girls and boys, and where all cultural divisions were stamped out. The public school taught—by force—what it was to be Argentinean.

Image credit: Dorot Jewish Division, The New York Public Library.

The Jews fascinated for their more extreme foreignness and incurred the very first waves of anti-Semitism. Even those who were not anti-Semitic describe them as exotic children:

Men who speak a language drier and rougher than desert sand (. . .) Their words crackle and pop or else grovel—guttural, nasal, and unintelligible. Sometimes these burly men play like children, pushing each other’s shoulders, run into the middle of the street, scream like dogs, and soon, once again, recover their stealth beat and carry on talking.7

This ethnic mix changes the colors and sounds of the city. Twenty years after Ricardo Rojas and his fearful warnings, the process had imposed itself by force and had profoundly remade the public imagination, daily life, and politics. Immigrants brought with them trade unions and anarchism, too; it is these foreigners who foster the earliest socialist movements, movements whose leaders belong, on the other hand, to the university-going middle class. Political ideologies, forms of labor organization, strategies of struggle and mobilization, via unions and strikes, provide the elite still more cause for alarm. The Babel of foreign languages, changes in customs, strikes and workers movements, and the appearance of intellectuals of immigrant origin (very different phenomena nonetheless imagined to be related) are felt as threats to the nation’s cultural unity.

Public debate during the first three decades of the twentieth century revolve around the European origins of the Argentine racial mix and whether the cultural preeminence of the hispano-criollo elite ought to be preserved in the face of so much immigrant-induced disorder. What does it mean to be Argentinean? Who has the right to define the limits of this cultural field where everything is beginning to blur? Ricardo Güiraldes, Francophile and friend to Valéry Larbaud, a dandy and wealthy rural landowner, sensed the veiled threat in these questions. On the one hand, the gaucho, as national figure, had been transformed into a day laborer on large estates; the criollo virtues that had been conferred upon him were disappearing along with these mythological torch-bearers of Argentine nationality who, in reality, were used as cannon fodder during civil wars or pawns in political disputes between oligarchs. But, once the gaucho had disappeared, the foreigner could offer nothing but his foreignness. This defect formed the base upon which the future of Argentina had to be imagined.

Güiraldes writes the final novel of the “rural cycle.” His unique mark is that he writes about the gaucho theme with “the metaphors of the then current literary circles of Montmartre,” as Borges ironically pointed out. This wildly successful novel, Don Segundo Sombra, published in 1927, takes as its characters the last literary gauchos, the final protagonists to perform rural work with the cheerful disinterest of Homeric combatants. But the novel fails almost entirely to account for the presence of those immigrants who were already extending their houses across the plain. And when a foreigner is mentioned, it’s to say that he’s sold his daughter into prostitution.

 

Flaneurs and Tramps

The heirs of the hispano-criollo elite felt that the nation’s racial, cultural, and linguistic “authenticity” was under fire. “Our city is called Babel,” Borges wrote in Inquisiciones (Inquisitions). Others, such as Oliverio Girondo, a fellow traveler of Borges and Güiraldes in their avant-garde crusade, took this loss of “authenticity” and molded it into a style. In the twenties, Girondo travels throughout Europe and compiles a book of poems about his stops along the way. To these European postcard-cities (Venice, Seville, Douarnez) he adds others from Buenos Aires, in which he laments not the loss of organicism or the absence of the past but rather looks to shed light on the fragmentation of the individual and his experience in the urban setting. Girondo’s solution to the question of foreignness consists of raising the bet: Europe is every bit as fragmentary, as dull as Buenos Aires; even when some corner of Europe appears excessively weighed down by history, Girondo introduces an ironic cue: in a Duchampian gesture, he situates a Spanish virgin next to a bidet.

Arlt—a child of immigrants and hardly a member of the hispano-criollo elite—also took note of the foreignness that, anyway, was inscribed in his very name, which he himself knew to be unpronounceable according to Spanish phonetics. Arlt writes:

Buenos Aires has four recovas,8 four recovas that are refuges from misery, a display window onto vagrancy, the museum of poverty; four recovas that are like the four cardinal points of human misery; four recovas that are the cauldron of filth, the avenue of grime, the boulevard of squalor, the valley of the ragged, the Cosmopolitan Court of Miracles for the Lice-Stricken; four recovas but a singular sadness: that of empty pockets, that of women who’d lost their way, that of immigrants without hope, that of the defeated without any refuge.9

Arlt had a keen understanding of the contradictions of the cosmopolitan city: the fragmentation of subjectivities produced by the metropolitan shock, the experiences that resist translation, the collapse of any illusion of organicism. The city, which is literally full of people as never before, is not only the flâneur’s paradise, the shop window full of goods, the voyeur or the exhibitionist’s refuge of anonymity, but also a desert: a desolate place, where the abstract relations of a triumphant capitalism impose themselves upon the most archaic forms of community. One lives in “a desert embedded in the heart of the city.”10

Those roaming the streets are not always flâneurs, the chic, dandies, or artists; in the Buenos Aires of the thirties, the unemployed, the immigrants whose dreams went unfulfilled, their children, and the new migrants that begin to arrive not from Europe but from the countryside provinces also roam the streets. In Buenos Aires, it’s possible to feel not only fascination at this shock but also the solitude of the big cities where there are flâneurs, of course, who dominate the urban cultural landscape. But there are also those who roam the streets and experience ostracism and solitude because they are marginal figures within the great urban machine whose workings are ever more abstract. Pulsing, the market embraces to later cast out. It also reshapes popular culture.

 

The Masses

In these same decades, the twenties and—above all—the thirties, there occur three fundamental events in modern popular culture: the spread of football as the national sport, which is rapidly professionalized; the implantation of radio and major dailies, the morning tabloids, sensationalist evening papers, full of illustrations; and the apogee of tango, which produces not only a repertoire of songs but also films and grand theatrical spectacles. All this speaks of the new masses that materially and symbolically begin to occupy urban space.

The subject of the masses (a topic first addressed by Ortega y Gasset in Spain, then introduced in Argentina in a great success) would become an obsession in pessimistic essays about the city. Ezequiel Martínez Estrada wrote two fundamental works about modern Argentina: Radiografía de la pampa (1933) and La cabeza de Goliat (1940). The first is an essay about the country’s historic formation since the Spanish conquest; the second deals with urban culture in Río de la Plata.

Martínez Estrada argued that Buenos Aires was the byproduct of the humus of the plains that surrounded it, that even the skyscrapers were successive layers of this clay and damp earth. As it grew, Buenos Aires disguised, through buildings that acted as masks, the pampa that was its origin and would be its destiny. Buenos Aires had swelled by superimposing, by addition, by metastasis, by filling in the empty spaces that, nonetheless, never quite fulfill their potential. A passage from Radiografía de la pampa reads:

Along the length of a single block, each building speaks a unique temporal language, of different economic cycles, different styles, which allow one to see, as in the earth’s strata, the cataclysms that it has experienced. (. . .) Next to the one-story houses, others of two stories; and between these, empty lots and skyscrapers twenty, thirty stories high that stretch skyward like the dominant ambition (. . .) A skyscraper on one block of low-rise buildings, next to lots that still retain their unspoiled grassland, is a sign of this very ambition and its opposite, a certain wreckage : the fracture in a stretch of land that is entirely developed. (. . .) Above the structure of one floor, which formed the earlier city, another city appears to have begun to be built. (. . .) In the beginning, the city was built atop the earth; today, one takes the ground floor as a foundation, and one-story homes become the empty lots for homes of two or more floors. For this reason, Buenos Aires maintains the structure of the pampa: it is the plains over which yet another plain is superimposed, as with sand or loess, over and over again.11

On these chaotic plains, the Spanish colony had been nothing more than an extended enterprise dedicated to plunder. And immigration, Martínez Estrada averred, brought its desire for profit, its unbridled ambition, its immediatist impulse, the malevolent heterogeneity of those who had lost their roots.

Stylistically and culturally, the heterogeneous city is viewed as undesirable disorder. Victoria Ocampo claimed for Buenos Aires no longer the whimsical, picturesque landscapes of European villages that other intellectuals pined for but a pattern to its houses that alternated between the same set of stylistic features. In this heterogeneous city without the historical powers to contain and give order to its diverse elements, the masses soon become even more threatening. They consist not only of European immigrants but their children, and other migrants, the criollos and mestizos arriving from the countryside provinces to settle down on the edge of the city. Whoever they are, they are always unfamiliar multitudes who put their difference on parade.

By the 1940s, Buenos Aires, which believed itself a metropolis before it actually became one, had assumed the attributes intellectuals had learned to fear in modern societies: the masses live in the city, the city is the scene of the masses, this amorphous entity, ungovernable and unsubject to rules of reason or of morality; they give a glimpse of what, just a few years later, would become the Peronist multitudes.

The city, the stage for Peronism, has all the hallmarks of its metropolitan modernity and none of the political vicissitudes of the fifties and sixties could change this. Buenos Aires the city is already predominately white, surrounded by prosperous suburbs, working-class neighborhoods, and shantytowns. Modernity has made good on some of its promises while revealing its inequities and inherent conflicts.

 

End of an Era

The end of this era arrives in 1976 with the military dictatorship. During these terrible years, the military promotes a vision for Buenos Aires that is technocratic, an authoritarian modernization, which begins with the expulsion of the poor and of migrants to the outer edges of the city center and reinforcement of material inequalities that divided the rich and poor areas of the city as never before. It is at this time that the highways that practically arrived at the city center are built, leaving deep wounds in the fabric of historical neighborhoods. The technification of the city is a powerful trend that continues to gain steam; some regions of Buenos Aires have been practically rebuilt according to the model of the urban, communication, and telecommunications advances of major metropoles of the end of the century.

Nevertheless, in the cultural and artistic imagination, the city is frequently viewed as a landscape of decay. The optimism of the elites at the end of the nineteenth century has given way to market forces in an urban space converted into the scene of big business. The elites near the end of the nineteenth century sought to shape a modern city for a population that was to arrive from Europe. Their project had contributed to inclusiveness, even if their modernization came from on high, buoyed by the rationale that these immigrant masses would receive an education that would transform them into citizens.

Capitalism, in its current form, lacks protagonists with this level of political and cultural consciousness that melds reformist impulse with authoritarianism. The urban market is not a public square. Capital doesn’t defend cities, it defends business interests in those cities.

In the face of such changes, the city that sought a homogeneous and European identity does not recognize itself in the masses of the poor—be they Argentineans or citizens of neighboring countries—who occupy the neighborhoods along its periphery and the decaying streets of the city center. Buenos Aires has been fractured in a way that reveals itself much more easily than the divide between a rich north and a poor southern region. In a memorable short story, Borges wrote that to cross into the city’s southern region was to enter another dimension in time. Today, the city’s southern region is Buenos Aires’s other face, the one shown to tourists, where locals take their foreign visitors.

On the other hand, Borges’s never-ending orillas, which soon became shantytowns or were transformed into working-class neighborhoods, are today a no man’s land of violence and unemployment. Buenos Aires, the proud city that mixed European models, has arrived at its “South American destiny,” with gated communities that serve as refuge to the affluent, millionaire ghettoes, and a historic center that is part slum.

The city is a historic map. Atop the optimistic blueprint of the nineteenth century, atop the monuments and public buildings of its glory days, there now appears a new system of highways and digital information networks. The new foreigners in this city are the poor—Asian immigrants, the rural dwellers expelled from their hometowns by unemployment. The Buenos Aires of the nineties is going through evident transformations: the greatest of these is the exodus from the city to the suburbs by the economic elites and those from the middle rungs who have managed to adapt to the city’s neoliberal transformation; secondly, the transformation of the city center into tourist attraction (where major international hotels now stand), the “museumification” of parts of the city chosen for their picturesque visuals, their prior inhabitants evicted by beautification projects, and areas of total decay where street vendors abound alongside the homeless and those excluded from the job market.

The city is the recipient of large-scale international investments that make use of the city’s past as decoration; along with these capitalist enterprises, the expansion of decaying regions, where urban technification and architectural postmodernism have yet to arrive. Some of the traditionally vibrant neighborhoods of Buenos Aires have entered decline: there we find hotels serving migrants from the provinces or other corners of Latin America, old houses in ruins yet to be discovered by some developer interested in recycling them, second-class city services, a lack of security.

What has brought this cycle to a definitive end is the very idea of the city as a cruel and seductive place stimulating to all sorts of innovation. The city is no longer viewed a desirable scene. The imagination is captured by a sort of country kitsch, according to which gated communities carry names that evoke the hispano-criollo past in modest lots of two hundred square yards, or become deterritorialized amid enormous suburban shopping centers peppered along major highways. Between the country kitsch neighborhoods and the globalized camp of the shopping malls, Buenos Aires is host to a continuum of eight million inhabitants.

But no one can any longer accuse the city of imitating Paris, a city that jealously guards its status as such, in the same way Manhattan and Berlin do. The European exile has come to an end. Now, in all likelihood, the image of paradise is some American suburb. And the foreigners here today are split between Latin America’s poor and tourists crisscrossing the northern part of the city, their handy guides at the ready to inform them that Buenos Aires is America’s most European city.


1. See Adrián Gorelik and Graciela Silvestri, “El pasado como futuro. Una utopía reactiva en Buenos Aires,” in Punto de Vista #41, April 1992.

2. See Adrián Gorelik, La grilla y el parque, Bernal, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, 1998; and Miradas sobre Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Siglo XXI, 2004.

3. Roberto Arlt, “Corrientes, por la noche,” El Mundo, 26 de mayo de 1929, found in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana (selection and prologue by Sylvia Saítta), Buenos Aires, Alianza, 1993, p. 33.

4. Katherine S. Dreier, Five Months in the Argentine from a Woman’s Point of View; 1918 to 1919, New York, Fredric Fairchild Sherman, 1920, p. 13.

5. See Gonzalo Aguilar, Buenos Aires ready-made (Marcel Duchamp en Argentina, 1918-1919), Buenos Aires, Ediciones del Pirata, 1996; and Marcel Duchamp, Milan, Bompiani, 1993 (Exhibition Catalog from Venice, 1993).

6. Ricardo Rojas, La restauración nacionalista, Buenos Aires, Imprenta de la Penitenciaría, 1910.

7. Roberto Arlt, “Sirio libaneses en el centro,” El Mundo, July 23, 1933, in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., pp. 89-90.

8. Recovas are covered markets or storefronts situated beneath arcade walkways. They once dotted the landscape of Buenos Aires and are considered emblems of the city.

9. Roberto Arlt, “Las cuatro recovas,” El Mundo, January 17, 1929, in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., p. 12.

10. Roberto Arlt, “El desierto en la ciudad,” El Mundo, January 26, 1929, in Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., p. 16.

11. Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Radiografía de la pampa (ed. Leo Pollmann), Madrid, Colección Archivos, 1991 [1933], pp. 149-150.

“Buenos Aires: Exílio de Europa” © 2007 by Beatriz Sarlo. By arrangement with the publisher. Translation © 2018 by Eric M. B. Becker and Julia Tomasini. All rights reserved.

Buenos Aires: el exilio de Europa

Modelos en plural

De los muchos lugares comunes sobre Buenos Aires, mencionaré sólo dos. El primero complace a los argentinos y es bastante inexacto: que Buenos Aires se parece a París. El segundo fue una crítica que se escuchó durante décadas de boca de los mismos argentinos que se extasiaban al imaginar ese aire de familia francés. A diferencia del parecido con París, la segunda observación es exacta: que Buenos Aires es una ciudad repetida y monótona. Lo curioso es que ambos juicios, que son contradictorios entre sí, suelen ser sostenidos al mismo tiempo. Vayamos al primero.

Buenos Aires no se parece a París porque, pese al lugar común, los proyectos que le dieron forma desde el último tercio del siglo XIX conjugaron modelos de diferente origen europeo. Naturalmente, se quiso tener grandes avenidas (que no son patrimonio privativo de París, por otra parte); algunas de ellas recuerdan fuertemente a las de Madrid y a Barcelona. Pero los grandes edificios públicos (que configuran verdaderos hitos visuales) no son invariablemente de inspiración francesa: hay fachadas neoclásicas, fachadas italianizantes, fachadas eclécticas, art déco, incluso expresionistas y modernistas. En los años treinta, se construyó el obelisco, el hito urbano que en todas las tarjetas postales representa a Buenos Aires.1 Éste es un objeto discretamente modernista, ortogonal, blanco y ajeno a cualquier marca que recuerde los obeliscos triunfales de la capital francesa.

París nunca fue el único modelo europeo de Buenos Aires, aunque la arquitectura Beaux Arts dio el tono de las grandes mansiones de la elite construidas en los últimos años del siglo XIX y los primeros del XX. Varias ideas de ciudad, entre ellas la de la metrópolis americana por excelencia, Nueva York, proporcionaron imágenes para pensar a la ciudad del Río de la Plata. A medida que avanza la modernización, la comparación con Nueva York se vuelve una perspectiva influyente. Hay un imaginario popular americano bajo el imaginario europeo. Pero tanto Nueva York como París son, fundamentalmente, mitos urbanos, mitos en el sentido en que Sorel usaba esa palabra, es decir, “sistemas de imágenes” más que guías constructivas precisas.

Le Corbusier subrayó como peculiar de Buenos Aires las casitas edificadas por artesanos italianos, casitas sencillas, que rápidamente podían reconducirse a formas geométricas elementales. También señaló que, a diferencia de las ciudades europeas que están atravesadas por su río emblemático (Roma, Londres, Florencia, París, Budapest, Praga, etc.), Buenos Aires se había edificado de modo que, ya hacia fines de la década de 1920, la llegada al río era casi imposible. En verdad, Buenos Aires no recuerda ninguna ciudad europea, pero se compone de fragmentos tomados de muchas de ellas. Abundan, en los barrios más ricos, los petit-hotel a la francesa, con sus techos de pizarra, pero ellos no dan el tono a la ciudad, más de lo que lo da la italianizada Casa de Gobierno, el ecléctico Teatro Colón o el Congreso, el disciplinado estilo moderno de su primer rascacielos o los rasgos ingleses de algunas estaciones de trenes suburbanas. El zoológico de Buenos Aires es una ciudad en miniatura que evoca la mezcla estilística de la ciudad que la alberga. Pabellones normandos, pagodas, serpentarios que citan la arquitectura industrial o las exposiciones universales.

Tampoco la cultura de elite argentina llevó únicamente la marca francesa. Victoria Ocampo, que pasó por arquetipo del afrancesamiento argentino, fue la traductora de Virginia Woolf, y la editora de Huxley, Nabokov, T. E. Lawrence y Tagore. Fundó su revista Sur, durante décadas la más prestigiosa del continente, presionada por su amigo norteamericano Waldo Frank y después de recibir el shock cultural neoyorquino. Nadie podría afirmar en serio que Borges es un afrancesado; por el contrario, sus salidas más irreverentes afectaron íconos de la cultura francesa, como Proust. La cultura popular argentina, desde los años veinte, miró a la norteamericana, tanto en el modelo de los grandes diarios de masas como en el desarrollo de la radio y del cine.

La cultura argentina tiene una relación inescindible con las traducciones europeas, pero no sólo con las traducciones francesas. La mezcla cultural es, por definición, mezcla de diversos orígenes.

La comparación de Buenos Aires con París (que, por otra parte, no se le ocurrió a ningún francés et pour cause) es una imagen del deseo. Resultó del voluntarismo político y cultural de las elites que proyectaron la ciudad moderna desde 1880. Probablemente si se hubiera interrogado a esos hombres, hubieran dicho que París era la ciudad que admiraban más. Pero esas adhesiones casi inevitables (porque París era entonces la ciudad que el mundo entero admiraba más) se toparon con límites materiales y surgieron iniciativas que no se reducían simplemente a la copia de un solo modelo sino a la ideación de una ciudad que funcionara como polo metropolitano moderno.

La Buenos Aires que imaginaron las elites y que, en parte, lograron construir, tiene un perfil cuya originalidad está en la combinación de diferentes modelos tecnológicos, urbanísticos y estéticos. Como en la cultura argentina, la originalidad está en los elementos que entran en la mezcla, atrapados, transformados y deformados por un gigantesco sistema de traducción. Buenos Aires es una traducción de Europa, de muchas lenguas y de textos urbanos en conflicto, refractada por el hecho inevitable de su ubicación en América. Hay tanta imitación como bricolage y reciclaje.

Buenos Aires se construyó con modelos europeos aplicados a la resolución de problemas que no eran los mismos de Europa. En primer lugar, porque, a diferencia de las ciudades europeas, en Buenos Aires se comenzó casi a partir de cero. Está el inmenso Río de la Plata, monótono, y, en ocasiones, amenazante por los desbordes que inundan los barrios de la ribera. Respecto de él, como lo percibió Le Corbusier de inmediato, la ciudad tiene una relación de progresivo alejamiento. Cuando Le Corbusier visitó Buenos Aires, en 1929, el río ya no se veía desde ninguna parte. Estaba, frente al río, una llanura también monótona y poco atrayente desde un punto de vista paisajístico. Sobre ella, había un puñado de edificios viejos, sin un carácter fuerte ni gran valor estético: la aduana colonial, que fue demolida, la recova, que también fue demolida, el cabildo virreinal, que perdió una de sus alas, algunas casas de la colonia más caracterizadas por la amplitud de sus patios que por su refinamiento, dos o tres iglesias, los dignos galpones ingleses del puerto, la arquitectura de hierro de algunas estaciones ferroviarias.

A partir de este suelo pobre en documentos de la historia, Buenos Aires se inventa. Su pobreza de historia urbana fue  durante años un tema de las elites. Se discutió largamente si debería conservarse la primitiva pirámide que homenajeaba la Revolución de Mayo de 1810, punto de partida del proceso de independencia de España; se discutió si una ciudad nueva y sin carácter debería permitir que, entre sus pocos monumentos, estuviera el dedicado a un héroe extranjero como el republicano Garibaldi; se discutió si valía la pena conservar, en el barrio sur, una vieja casa colonial, arruinada por completo, que recibía el nombre, un poco exagerado, de Casa de la Virreina. Estas polémicas, que ocuparon a la elite entre 1890 y 1920, no son secundarias. En un nivel simbólico, indican el vacío de pasado que la ciudad sentía como su falla original.

A este vacío histórico se agregaba el vacío simbólico de la llanura, que se convirtió en extensión geometrizada por el trazado urbano. Los viajeros europeos y los intelectuales argentinos que habían viajado por Europa opinaron que Buenos Aires era una ciudad monótona. Cuando el novelista Manuel Gálvez regresó de Europa, en la segunda década de este siglo, sintió la desesperanza de reencontrarse con una Buenos Aires que carecía del pintoresquismo paisajístico y urbano de las ciudades y aldeas españolas que acababa de visitar. La modernidad de Buenos Aires, que era una ciudad trazada con la deliberación de un proyecto, le pareció pobre y sin carácter. El desencanto de la comparación con Europa fue un obstáculo para reconocer que esa ciudad monótona era técnicamente más europea que muchas de las que había visitado en España e Italia.

En efecto, Buenos Aires ya tenía entonces una línea de trenes subterráneos (inaugurada en 1913), un puerto moderno, calles trazadas y afirmadas, parques diseñados por arquitectos paisajistas, grandes edificios públicos, cloacas, teléfonos y electricidad. Lo peculiar de Buenos Aires, además, era que estos servicios se distribuían de modo relativamente equitativo y alcanzaban a los barrios ricos y los pobres.2 El trazado de las calles era geométrico hasta la exasperación, porque las elites habían decidido conservar el damero colonial y expandirlo, en lugar de optar por trazados urbanos más interesantes, irregulares y pintorescos.

Calles, calles, calles

Los barrios repiten un trazado de manzanas cuadradas que son formalmente idénticas a las del centro. La manzana de cien metros de lado es la forma ideal, platónica, de la ciudad moderna: la monotonía de la geometría separa abruptamente a la ciudad de la naturaleza. Si no tiene paisaje caprichoso y variado, la ciudad tampoco lo reemplaza con un diseño pintoresquista que contradeciría su entorno pampeano. Buenos Aires encuentra una fisonomía. Sobre la llanura que la rodea y la penetra, la ciudad pone su forma que es tan sencilla como las coordenadas también rectas e infinitas de la llanura. Buenos Aires está, idealmente, completa aun cuando sus calles todavía comunican un baldío con otro  baldío. Es la orilla geometrizada de la pampa, límite y margen donde el campo a veces se introduce en la ciudad, y la ciudad a veces penetra el campo. Esta condición orillera (que en el castellano del Río de la Plata quiere decir también bravía, marginal, incluso criminosa) puede pensarse como una imagen de la Argentina construida desde mediados del siglo XIX, en el lugar más remoto de América, finis terrae adonde acuden los inmigrantes europeos en busca de un Dorado que siglos antes no habían encontrado los españoles. Buenos Aires, las orillas de Europa.

A fines de los años cuarenta, Héctor A. Murena escribió un libro donde desarrolla esta idea de finis terrae. Su título es El pecado original de América. La tesis es sencilla como el argumento de una tragedia. En  Europa, los hombres viven en un territorio sobre el que se han depositado capas de historia. Cuando el arado se clava en una parcela, la tierra recuerda haber sido arada durante siglos. Esa tierra se ha ido humanizando porque fue ocupada por generaciones y generaciones: en mi casa natal, en Asturias —me decía un inmigrante— está la mesa donde comieron mis bisabuelos. Murena vive la diferencia americana como una privación de este pasado: América es un continente arrojado fuera de la historia. Los europeos que llegaron a América abandonaron una tierra donde era posible encontrar sentidos y se establecieron en un espacio vacío. No pudieron ni quisieron construir allí una comunidad donde el tiempo pasado pudiera acumularse como historia y memoria. Construyeron ciudades y sociedades súbitas, volcadas enteramente hacia el futuro. Por eso, la condición americana es, para siempre, una condición de ser arrojado del mundo.

Sin que hubieran polemizado nunca, es evidente que Borges no compartió la perspectiva radicalmente pesimista de Murena. Su idea de Buenos Aires es me- nos trágica pero más conflictiva. Capta la contradicción entre dimensiones culturales diferentes, una contradicción irresuelta, y no simplemente una pérdida. Para Borges, Buenos Aires es material y simbólicamente una “orilla”, es decir un espacio que no termina de resolverse ni hacia un lado ni hacia el otro, un límite y también un margen.

Pero volvamos a la construcción de Buenos Aires. La ocupación de la llanura al borde del río fue lenta durante siglos. Pero después de concluidas las guerras civiles y después de una operación genocida por la que se arrinconó, se eliminó o se despojó a los últimos pobladores prehispánicos, sobre las derrotas de fracciones tradicionalistas de las provincias y la unificación violenta del territorio nacional, en el último tercio del siglo XIX, Buenos Aires comienza un crecimiento de aceleración desconocida hasta entonces.

Una cita de Roberto Arlt, publicada en un periódico de 1929, describe una ciudad que está haciéndose:

 

Como en los escenarios de los teatros cuando ya se apagaron las luces y quedan solas las bambalinas, se ven casas cortadas por la mitad, salones donde la piqueta municipal ha dejado íntegro, por un milagro, un rectángulo de papel de oro o una estampa de “La Vie Parisienne”. Armazones de cemento armado más bellos que una mujer. Caños de desagüe. Arcos voltaicos reverberando sótanos de tierra amarilla, mientras cruje la cadena de la grúa eléctrica… 3  

 

Roberto Arlt compara la ciudad en construcción con una escenografía porque Buenos Aires se está reformando velozmente, sin tiempo casi para borrar las marcas de lo que había sido poco tiempo atrás, como esas casas cortadas por la mitad, porque su fachada ocupaba el espacio de la gran avenida. Como en un teatro, se trabaja día y noche, a la luz de los arcos voltaicos, ese icono tecnológico de la iluminación moderna. La ciudad se construye con una especie de frenesí paradójicamente planificado, como si debiera estar lista para la función del día siguiente. Buenos Aires va cambiando, casi de la noche a la mañana, a medida que se ensanchan sus calles o se derriban bloques enteros de edificios para dar paso a diagonales proyectadas por intendentes modernistas. Es la escenografía que deberá representar a la metrópolis moderna, como un acto de la voluntad urbanística.

La literatura, especialmente la de Roberto Arlt y de Oliverio Girondo, presenta esta ciudad nueva con las técnicas del collage vanguardista: la ciudad, más que un espacio-tiempo continuo, es un montaje de imágenes fragmentarias. En 1920 y 1930, la ruptura de la experiencia temporal, un efecto de la tecnología y de los sistemas de comunicación modernos, produce la impresión de que la ciudad no tuviera pasado conservable, que todo lo anterior podría caer bajo la piqueta y que sólo habría ganancia en la construcción de lo nuevo. La metrópolis (que Buenos Aires desea ser) es un estallido de la historia.

Cincuenta años antes de la noche en que Roberto Arlt descubre esta ciudad escenográfica, el ejido urbano de Buenos Aires apenas si estaba ocupado por edificación en la vieja zona del centro sur, junto a la aduana, el puerto, la Casa de Gobierno y la calle Florida. El resto eran manchones de casas aisladas por extensiones barrosas. Pero en 1929, esos enormes espacios vacíos se habían compactado. La ciudad, que antes se confundía con la llanura que la rodeaba, ya era plenamente ciudad, y tanto que se demolía lo construido pocos años antes para abrir calles y avenidas dignas de una gran capital.

Pero esa aceleración de 1929 tenía antecedentes. En 1918, Catherine Dreier, una viajera norteamericana amiga de Marcel Duchamp, descubrió que en esa ciudad que se pretendía cosmopolita, ni siquiera los mejores hoteles recibían a mujeres que viajaran solas. La ciudad y la condición de las mujeres en ella le parecen producto de una cultura hispánica conservadora y tradicionalista. Buenos Aires no la impresiona como la “París del Sur” de la que había oído hablar, por dos razones: la monotonía de su trazado en grilla ortogonal, por una parte, y la ausencia de una sociabilidad rica y móvil en el espacio público, por la otra. Más que a París, Buenos Aires le recuerda a Brooklyn. Probablemente, Dreier no se equivocaba demasiado:

 

Una hermosa avenida, llamada Avenida de Mayo, se prolonga por poco más de una milla y podría recordar un boulevard parisino, con sus árboles y los muchos cafés cuyas mesas y sillas ocupan las veredas. Pero, en realidad, ¡qué dis- tinto es todo a París! Acá muy pocas veces se ve a una mujer y, a diferencia de París, sólo los hombres frecuentan los cafés (…) Buenos Aires me recuerda constantemente a Brooklyn. Tiene sólo una pequeña zona divertida e intere- sante, y el resto consiste en una infinita perspectiva de calles. Algunas bien pa- vimentadas, otras mal, pero sólo calles, calles, calles. 4

 

También en 1918, un viajero ya conocido en los círculos estéticos de París y Nueva York, Marcel Duchamp, llega con la idea de establecerse un tiempo en Buenos Aires. No conoce a nadie y su visita queda como un acto secreto, sin dejar huellas ni ser comentado por ningún argentino. Aburrido de una ciudad que considera una aldea, Duchamp regresa en 1919 a Estados Unidos. Antes, en algunas cartas que escribió desde Buenos Aires, la juzga severa y displicentemente. Le parece una pequeña ciudad de provincia, vulgar, donde no se sabe nada del arte contemporáneo y donde la elite es poco refinada.5 Miss Dreier tiene la misma impresión sobre los gustos estéticos de la elite que —según ella— elige decorar sus palacios con arte pompier y carece de toda idea sobre la arquitectura moderna.

Ni Dreier ni Duchamp estaban en condiciones de captar qué había detrás y debajo de ese damero de calles rectas cuya regularidad resulta, sin duda, singularmente antipintoresca. Esas calles rectas, “sólo calles”, prolongadas hasta el infinito, son la máquina geométrica de la Buenos Aires moderna, que le permite crecer con una velocidad insólita y multiplicar sus suburbios en pocas décadas. Debajo de esas calles rectas están los tubos de los desagües y los túneles del primer subterráneo; y en la superficie, siguiendo las líneas de la grilla, los rieles de los tramways, las líneas eléctricas y los cables telefónicos. Esto, que naturalmente impresionaba poco si el viajero llegaba desde Nueva York, fue la base de la modernización urbana sobre la que, muy pocos años después, se apoyarían los procesos de modernidad cultural.

La trama subterránea y aérea de los servicios y del transporte, que Dreier y Duchamp miraron con descuido, era una de las capas más dinámicas de la ciudad real. Pasaron por alto tanto estas construcciones técnicas, como la voluntad urbanística de diseñar una ciudad regular, balanceada. Sin embargo, los viajeros menos ilustres que llegaban para quedarse, los inmigrantes europeos, encontrarían condiciones materiales que desconocían en sus aldeas de origen.

Proyecto urbano e inmigración

Buenos Aires fue una ciudad de inmigrantes. Lo primero que hay que decir es que a las ciudades latinoamericanas la gente llega desde otra parte: son ciudades producto de cambios demográficos gigantescos. Durante la colonia española, con métodos muchas veces sanguinarios, se establecieron decenas de miles de peninsulares sobre los territorios de los pueblos de origen americano. Se funda así una sociedad hispano-criolla, con diferentes grados de mestizaje. En el Río de la Plata, la colonia española fue pobre y no conoció el artificio barroco de las grandes capitales virreinales, como México, Lima o Bogotá. Los edificios coloniales que sobreviven en Buenos Aires son discretos ejemplos del neoclásico o simples iglesias blancas. No hubo arquitectura de corte virreinal ni arte mestizo porque tampoco había en el Río de la Plata grandes culturas indígenas anteriores a la conquista.

Hasta el último tercio del siglo XIX, lo característico de la economía pastoril fue una sociabilidad no urbana, de patrones de estancia y gauchos que comenzaban a convertirse en peones rurales por la fuerza del mercado de trabajo y de la policía. Buenos Aires era una aldea barrosa, sin grandes edificios, sin parques ni obras públicas, asolada en ocasiones por la peste que se extendía por los desagües abiertos, las construcciones precarias y los mataderos próximos al centro. Sólo después de 1870, empezó a dar el tono cultural a su región de influencia y se pensó a sí misma como futura ciudad cosmopolita. La fórmula de las elites modernizantes podía resumirse en proyecto urbano más inmigración.

La idea de ciudad y la idea de un gigantesco cambio poblacional ya aparecen unidas en Sarmiento, para quien las llanuras extensas donde prospera la cultura pastoril son el escenario propicio al despotismo, y las ciudades-puerto, hospitalarias frente a los extranjeros, presentan el espacio propicio a la república moderna. Sarmiento, que había admirado una república de farmers en Estados Unidos, confiaba en el poder civilizatorio de la ciudad, donde las virtudes cívicas podrían triunfar sobre las resistencias tradicionalistas y civilizar la pampa (farmers en la llanura, escuelas en todas partes, y una ciudad fuerte desde donde se ejerciera el gobierno). Para él, como para muchos hombres del siglo XIX, la ciudad era una construcción pedagógica en sí misma. El espacio imparte lecciones prácticas y debe funcionar como una buena máquina enseñante. Vivir en ciudad es etimológica y simbólicamente un acto de civilización. Los inmigrantes eran una pieza central de este proyecto.

Entre 1880 y la Primera Guerra Mundial llegaron a Buenos Aires decenas de miles de inmigrantes. Básicamente españoles e italianos, pero también alemanes, rusos, judíos centroeuropeos y asiáticos. La mayoría española e italiana no respondía del todo al perfil del inmigrante ideal fantaseado por las elites (que buscaban artesanos y campesinos nórdicos que, a su vez, sensatamente, preferían inmigrar a Estados Unidos).

Como sea, en el comienzo del siglo XX, Buenos Aires es una ciudad de extranjeros (la mitad de sus habitantes lo son). Se publican periódicos en italiano, alemán, idisch; en 1910, mientras se festeja la independencia de España y se cumplen todos los ritos de reafirmación de la nacionalidad, por las calles de Buenos Aires se escuchan esas lenguas exóticas o el castellano con acento peninsular.

A la población de origen hispano-criollo se superpuso una población extranjera cuyos miembros eran más jóvenes y sus mujeres procreaban más hijos. En pocas décadas, los inmigrantes y sus hijos nacidos en Argentina son más numerosos que la base hispano-criolla que viene del virreinato. Esos europeos llegan, desde pueblos mínimos, a una ciudad que parece inmensa porque está agujereada por la llanura. No son cosmopolitas, son simplemente extranjeros. Un inmigrante italiano narraba el shock producido por Buenos Aires. Venía de una aldea rural que se recostaba orgánicamente sobre una colina, integrada por el trabajo de los siglos en el paisaje cuyas piedras formaban los muros de la iglesia y de las casas. Su aldea era nada, tenía sólo el tamaño de un barrio de Buenos Aires. Sin embargo, este inmigrante, como los miles que llegaron antes que él, debían olvidar la aldea para afincarse en esta ciudad y realizar las transacciones complejas por las cuales, aunque nunca dejarían de ser del todo extranjeros, comenzarían a pensar que su casa estaba en esa orilla de América.

En Buenos Aires, no sólo la elite combinó modelos urbanos: la inmigración protagonizó un gigantesco proceso de refundición de identidades culturales. Al final de ese proceso, y sólo para los hijos de esos inmigrantes, estaba la ciudadanía política y el derecho a la ciudad.

La superposición de identidades culturales trae desilusiones y conflictos. La ciudad hispano-criolla no se reconoce en la ciudad inmigratoria; la ciudad, que antes era espacio público de las elites, se convierte en una ciudad donde comienza a circular todo el mundo. Se destruye la trama de relaciones directas que caracterizaba la aldea. Buenos Aires es ocupada por “extraños”, recién llegados que no respondían (ni respondieron en ningún lugar de América) al patrón con que las elites habían definido a los extranjeros “deseables” para la consolidación de la sociedad civil y del mercado de trabajo. En el puerto de Buenos Aires se hacinan los pobres de Europa, tan analfabetos como los gauchos que supuestamente debían desalojar con sus costumbres de orden y trabajo.

Los miedos

En 1910, un historiador y crítico importante, Ricardo Rojas, diagnostica con alarma la presencia del extranjero en Buenos Aires.6 Lo asustan los carteles de los escaparates, escritos en idisch, en polaco, en italiano; las sociedades de fomento italianas, que exhibían la foto del rey Umberto o de Mazzini; los diarios  y las celebraciones patrióticas de las colectividades; los judíos con sus levitas y sus gorras ocupando algunas de las zonas de Buenos Aires, y levantando allí sus templos. Rojas no pretende desalojar a esos recién llegados, pero le preocupa establecer sobre ellos la tutela de la elite hispano-criolla. No quiere que permanezcan en sus ghettos, sino por el contrario, obligarlos a la mezcla. La educación le parece un instrumento clave para esta asimilación. Y, en realidad, lo fue. Los hijos de esos inmigrantes son alfabetizados y nacionalizados en la escuela pública, laica, gratuita y obligatoria para niñas y niños, donde se reprimieron todos los clivajes culturales. A la fuerza, la escuela pública enseñaba a ser argentino.

Los judíos fascinan por su extranjería más lejana y producen las primeras fobias antisemitas. Incluso quienes no fueron antisemitas, los describen como niños exóticos:

 

Hombres que hablan un idioma más seco y más áspero que la arena del desierto (…) Las palabras chasquean y restallan o se arrastran guturales, gangosas e incomprensibles. A veces estos hombrazos juegan como chicos, se empujan por los hombros, se corren hasta el centro de la calle, gritan como perros y, luego, nuevamente, recobran el ritmo de su sigilo y continúan conversando.7

 

Esta mezcla étnica cambia los colores y las lenguas de la ciudad. Veinte años después de las advertencias temerosas de Ricardo Rojas, el proceso ha impuesto su potencia y ha reconfigurado muy profundamente la dimensión simbólica, la vida cotidiana y la política. Porque con los inmigrantes llega también el sindica- lismo y el anarquismo; los extranjeros alimentan la primera militancia del socialismo, cuyos dirigentes pertenecen, en cambio, a la clase media universitaria. Las ideologías políticas, las formas de organización laboral, las estrategias de lucha y movilización, a través del sindicato y la huelga, le proporcionan a la elite razones suplementarias de alarma. La Babel de las lenguas extranjeras, el cambio en las costumbres cotidianas, las huelgas y movilizaciones obreras y la aparición de intelectuales de origen inmigratorio (fenómenos muy diferentes pero imaginariamente relacionados) son vividos como amenaza a la unidad cultural de la nación. Los debates de las tres primeras décadas del siglo XX giran sobre los orígenes europeos de la mezcla racial argentina y sobre si debía preservarse la preeminencia cultural de la elite hispano-criolla frente al desorden inmigratorio. ¿Qué quiere decir argentino? ¿Quién tiene derecho a definir los límites de este campo cultural donde se está comenzando a mezclar todo? Ricardo Güiraldes, un afrancesado, amigo de Valéry Larbaud, dandy y rico propietario rural, sintió la amenaza encerrada en estas preguntas. Por un lado, el gaucho, como tipo nacional, se había convertido en jornalero afincado en la estancia; las virtudes criollas que se le atribuían estaban desapareciendo con esos portadores mitológicos de nacionalidad que, cuando existían realmente, fueron usados como carne de cañón de las guerras civiles o masa de maniobra de la política oligárquica. Pero, desaparecido el gaucho, el extranjero no podía ofrecer otra cosa que su extranjería. Y sobre esa falla había que pensar el futuro de la Argentina.

Güiraldes escribe el último romance del ciclo rural. Su particularidad es escribir el tema gaucho con “todas las novedades de los cenáculos de Montmartre”, como irónicamente señaló Borges. Esa novela exitosísima, Don Segundo Sombra, publicada en 1927, tiene como personajes a los últimos gauchos de la literatura, los últimos protagonistas de faenas rurales realizadas con la alegría desinteresada de los combates homéricos. Pero la novela casi no puede registrar la presencia de los inmigrantes que ya extendían sus chacras por toda la llanura. Y cuando se menciona a un extranjero es para decir que había vendido a su hija en un prostíbulo.

Paseantes y vagabundos

Los hijos de la elite hispano-criolla sentían que la “autenticidad” racial, cultural y lingüística estaba amenazada. “Nuestra ciudad se llama Babel”, escribe Borges.8 Otros, como Oliverio Girondo, compañero de Borges y Güiraldes en los combates vanguardistas, hacen de la pérdida de “autenticidad” un estilo. En los años veinte, Girondo viaja por Europa y organiza un libro de poemas sobre las estaciones de su itinerario. A esas postales europeas (Venecia, Sevilla, Douarnez) las mezcla con otras postales de Buenos Aires, en las que no lamenta la pérdida de organicidad o la ausencia de pasado, sino que procura poner en escena la fragmentación del sujeto y de la experiencia en la condición metropolitana. La solución de Girondo a la cuestión de la extranjería consiste en una duplicación de la apuesta: Europa es tan fragmentaria, tan plana como Buenos Aires; incluso cuando algún rincón europeo parece excesivamente cargado de historia, Girondo introduce un corte irónico: con gesto duchampiano, ubica a la virgen sevillana al lado de un bidet.

También Roberto Arlt, que es hijo de inmigrantes y está lejos de pertenecer a la elite hispano-criolla, percibió la extranjería que, de todos modos, estaba escrita en su nombre, que él mismo sabía impronunciable según la fonética española. Arlt escribe:

 

Cuatro recovas tiene Buenos Aires, cuatro recovas que son el refugio de la pobretería, el escaparate de la vagancia, el museo de la pobreza; cuatro recovas que son como los cuatro puntos cardinales de la miseria humana; cuatro recovas que son el caldero de la roña, el paseo de la mugre, el camino de la sordidez, el valle de los desarrapados, la Corte de los Milagros de la piojería cosmopolita; cuatro recovas y una sola tristeza: la de los bolsillos sin dinero, la de las mujeres sin rumbo, la de los inmigrantes sin esperanza, la de los vencidos sin refugio.9

 

Arlt percibió agudamente las contradicciones de la ciudad cosmopolita: la fragmentación de las subjetividades en el shock metropolitano, la intraductibilidad de las experiencias, el desmoronamiento de las ilusiones de organicidad. La ciudad, que está literalmente llena de gente como nunca antes, es no sólo el paraíso del paseante, el escaparate de las mercancías, el refugio anónimo del mirón o del exhibicionista, sino también un desierto: un lugar desolado, donde las relaciones abstractas del capitalismo ya triunfante se imponen sobre las formas más arcaicas de comunidad. Se vive en “un desierto encastrado en el corazón de la ciudad”.10

El vagabundo no siempre es un flâneur, un elegante, un dandy o un artista; en la Buenos Aires de los años treinta, también vagabundean los desocupados, los fracasados del sueño inmigratorio, sus hijos, y los nuevos migrantes que empiezan a llegar ya no de Europa sino de las provincias interiores. En Buenos Aires es posible sentir no sólo la fascinación del shock, sino la soledad de las grandes urbes donde hay flâneurs, obviamente, que dominan el mapa cultural citadino, pero también hay vagabundos que experimentan la expulsión y la soledad porque son marginales dentro de la gran máquina urbana que produce formas cada vez más abstractas de funcionamiento. Pulsátil, el mercado incluye y expulsa. También produce nuevas configuraciones culturales populares.

Las masas

En estas mismas décadas de 1920 y, sobre todo, de 1930, se registran tres acontecimientos fundamentales de la cultura popular moderna: la difusión del football como deporte nacional, que se profesionaliza rápidamente; la implantación de la radio y los grandes diarios, matutinos de formato tabloide, vesperti- nos sensacionalistas, muy ilustrados; y el apogeo del tango que produce no sólo un repertorio de canciones sino también de films y grandes espectáculos teatrales. Todo esto habla de nuevas masas que ocupan material y simbólicamente el espacio urbano.

El tópico de la muchedumbre (tópico que inaugura Ortega y Gasset en España y transfiere con un éxito fulgurante a la Argentina) será una obsesión del ensayo pesimista sobre la ciudad. Ezequiel Martínez Estrada escribió dos libros fundamentales sobre la Argentina moderna: Radiografía de la pampa (1933) y La cabeza de Goliat (1940). El primero es un ensayo sobre la constitución histórica del país desde la conquista española; el segundo aborda el problema de la cultura urbana en el Río de la Plata.

Martínez Estrada afirmó que Buenos Aires era una excrecencia del humus de la llanura que la rodeaba, que incluso los rascacielos eran sucesivas capas de esa tierra gredosa y húmeda. Al crecer, Buenos Aires disimuló, mediante máscaras de edificios, la llanura pampeana que fue su origen y será su destino. Buenos Aires se ha llenado por superposición, por agregado, por metástasis, por completamiento de vacíos que, sin embargo, nunca llegan a colmarse. Así se lee en Radiografía de la pampa:

 

A lo largo de una cuadra los diferentes edificios hablan distintos idiomas de tiempo, de épocas económicas, de modas, y permiten ver, como en sus estratos la tierra, los cataclismos que han sufrido. (…) Junto a las casas de un piso, las de dos; y entre ellas los terrenos baldíos y los rascacielos de veinte o treinta pisos que surgen como la ambición predominante (…) Un rascacielos en una manzana de edificios de planta baja, próximo a terrenos que aún conservan pastos originarios, indica lo mismo y al revés que un hundimiento: la fractura de un trozo de suelo en que todo está asentado. (…) Sobre las construcciones de un piso, que formaron la ciudad anterior, parece haber comenzado a edificarse otra ciudad en los otros pisos. (…) Al principio se construía sobre la tierra; hoy se utiliza el primer piso como terreno, y las casas de un piso ya son los terrenos baldíos de las casas de dos o más. Por eso Buenos Aires tiene la estructura de la pampa; la llanura sobre la que va superponiéndose, como la arena y el loess, otra llanura; y después otra.11

 

Sobre este caos plano, la colonia española había sido solamente un extendido saqueo. Y la inmigración, afirmaba Martínez Estrada, trajo su voluntad de lucro, su ambición irrefrenable, su pulsión instantaneísta, su mala heterogeneidad de pueblos que han perdido sus raíces.

La ciudad heterogénea estilística y culturalmente es percibida como desorden indeseable. En el mismo sentido intervenía Victoria Ocampo, reclamando para Buenos Aires ya no el pintoresquismo caprichoso de las aldeas europeas que otros intelectuales extrañaban, sino la regularidad de sus casas que repiten los mismos rasgos estilísticos. En esta ciudad heterogénea, sin patrones históricos que contengan y ordenen lo diverso, las muchedumbres pueden volverse aún más amenazadoras. Se trata ya no sólo de los inmigrantes europeos sino de sus hijos, y de otros migrantes, los criollos y mestizos que están llegando de las provincias interiores para establecerse en las orillas de la ciudad. Como sea, siempre son multitudes extrañas que ponen en escena su diferencia.

Buenos Aires, que se creía metrópolis cuando todavía no lo era, en los años cuarenta muestra los rasgos que los intelectuales han aprendido a temer en las sociedades modernas: la masa vive en la ciudad, la ciudad es el escenario de la masa, esa sustancia amorfa, ingobernable y no sujeta a las regulaciones ni de la razón ni de la moral; ella prefigura lo que serían, pocos años después, las multitudes peronistas.

La ciudad, escenario del peronismo, exhibe los rasgos de su modernidad metropolitana y ninguno de los avatares políticos de las décadas del 50 y 60 torcieron ese perfil. Buenos Aires ya es la ciudad predominantemente blanca, rodeada de suburbios prósperos, de barrios obreros y de villas miseria. La modernidad ha cumplido algunas de sus promesas y ha mostrado sus injusticias y conflictos.

Fin de ciclo

El fin del ciclo llega en 1976, con la dictadura militar. Durante esos años terribles, los militares llevan adelante en Buenos Aires una política tecnocrática, de modernización autoritaria, que comienza por la expulsión de pobres y migrantes hacia afuera del casco urbano y la consolidación de desigualdades materiales que dividen más que nunca en zonas ricas y pobres. Se construyen las autopistas que llegan prácticamente hasta el centro, dejando heridas profundas en el tejido de barrios tradicionales. La tecnificación de la ciudad es una tendencia poderosa que se afirma en el presente; algunas zonas de Buenos Aires han sido prácticamente reconstruidas sobre el modelo de las intervenciones urbanas, comunicacionales y telecomunicacionales, de las grandes metrópolis fin de siglo.

Sin embargo, en el imaginario cultural y estético, la ciudad es vista a menudo como un paisaje de decadencia. El optimismo proyectual y estatista de las elites de fines del siglo XIX ha dejado paso al juego de las fuerzas del mercado en un espacio urbano convertido en escena de meganegocios. Las elites de fines del XIX pensaron configurar una ciudad moderna para una población que llegaría de Europa. Su proyecto tuvo efectos inclusivos, aunque se trató de una modernización desde arriba, justificada por el argumento de que esas masas inmigratorias debían ser educadas para la ciudadanía.

Los procesos capitalistas del presente no tienen actores con ese nivel de conciencia cultural y política que mezclaba impulso reformador y autoritarismo. El mercado urbano no es un ágora. Los capitales no defien den ciudades, defienden negocios en las ciudades.

Frente a estos cambios, la ciudad que quiso ser  homogénea y europea, no se reconoce en las masas de pobres argentinos y de los países limítrofes que ocupan los barrios marginales y las calles deterioradas del downtown. Buenos Aires se ha fracturado de un modo mucho más evidente que la división entre un norte rico y un sur popular. Borges escribió en un cuento memorable que cruzar hacia el sur era entrar en otra dimensión del tiempo. Hoy el sur de la ciudad es la otra cara del Buenos Aires que conocen los turistas o les muestran a los visitantes extranjeros.

Por otra parte, las orillas indeterminadas de Borges, que luego se convirtieron en villas miserias o se transformaron en barrios populares, hoy son un no man’s land de inseguridad y desocupación. Buenos Aires, la orgullosa ciudad que combinaba modelos europeos, ha encontrado su “destino sudamericano”, con barrios cerrados donde se refugian los sectores afluentes, guetos millonarios, y un centro histórico parcialmente tugurizado.

La ciudad es un mapa histórico. Sobre el trazado optimista del siglo XIX, sobre los monumentos y edificios públicos de su apogeo, aparece la nueva red de autopistas y la red informática. Los nuevos extranjeros de esta ciudad son los pobres, los migrantes asiáticos, los provincianos expulsados de sus regiones por la desocupación. La Buenos Aires de los años noventa atraviesa cambios evidentes: en primer lugar, el éxodo desde la ciudad hacia los suburbios por parte de las elites económicas y de los sectores de las capas medias que pudieron adaptarse a la transformación neoliberal; en segundo lugar, la conversión del centro de la ciudad en espacios turísticos (donde se construyen grandes hoteles internacionales), zonas museificadas elegidas por su pintoresquismo y embellecidas expulsando a sus anteriores habitantes, y zonas completamente deterioradas donde proliferan los vendedores ambulantes, los excluidos del mercado de trabajo y los homeless.

La ciudad recibe grandes inversiones internacionales que utilizan el pasado urbano como decorado; junto a estos emprendimientos del capitalismo, se extienden las zonas de deterioro, donde la tecnificación urbana y la postmodernidad arquitectónica no han llegado. Algunos barrios tradicionalmente dinámicos de Buenos Aires se han tugurizado: allí encontramos hoteles para migrantes de las provincias o de América Latina, viejas casas ruinosas a las que todavía no descubrió ningún developer interesado en el reciclaje, servicios urbanos de segunda categoría, seguridad deficiente.

Lo que ha cerrado definitivamente un ciclo es la caída de la idea misma  de ciudad como lugar despiadado y seductor, propicio a todas las innovaciones. La ciudad no parece ya una escena deseable. El imaginario se fascina con una especie de kitsch campesino, en el que los barrios cerrados ostentan nombres que evocan el pasado hispano-criollo en mezquinas parcelas de doscientos metros cuadrados, o se desterritorializa en los grandes centros comerciales extraurbanos, tirados al borde de las autopistas. Entre el barrio campestre kitsch y el camp global de los shopping malls, Buenos Aires integra un continuum de ocho millones de habitantes.

Ya nadie podría acusarla de que imita a París, una ciudad que defien de su condición de ciudad, como la defien den Manhattan o Berlín. El exilio europeo ha concluido. Ahora, probablemente, la imagen del paraíso sea un suburbio norteamericano. Y los extranjeros hoy se dividen entre los latinoamericanos pobres, y los turistas que deambulan por el norte de la ciudad con un guía que les informa que Buenos Aires es la ciudad más europea de América.

“Buenos Aires: el exílio de Europa” © Beatriz Sarlo.

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1. Véase Adrián Gorelik y Graciela Silvestri, “El pasado como futuro. Una utopía reactiva en Buenos Aires”, en Punto de Vista, nº 41, abril de 1992. 

2. Véanse Adrián Gorelik, La grilla y el parque, Bernal, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, 1998; y Miradas sobre Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Siglo XXI, 2004

3. Roberto Arlt, “Corrientes, por la noche”, El Mundo, 26 de mayo de 1929, compilada en Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana (selección y prólogo de Sylvia Saítta), Buenos Aires, Alianza, 1993, p. 33.

4. Katherine S. Dreier, Five Months in the Argentine from a Woman’s Point of View; 1918 to 1919, Nueva York, Fredric Fairchild Sherman, 1920, p. 13 (“One beautiful avenue, called the Avenida de Mayo, which stretches a little more than a mile might easily recall a Parisian boulevard, with its avenues of trees and its many cafés with small tables and chairs on the sidewalk. But how unlike Paris in reality! Here one rarely sees a woman, and, unlike Paris, only men frequent the cafés (…) Buenos Aires was constantly reminding me of Brooklyn. There was only a small section which was interesting and amusing, and the rest was endless, endless vistas of streets. Sometimes with good pavement, sometimes with bad, but just streets, streets, streets”).

5. Véanse Gonzalo Aguilar, Buenos Aires ready-made (Marcel Duchamp en Argentina, 1918-1919), Buenos Aires, Ediciones del Pirata, 1996; y Marcel Duchamp, Milán, Bompiani, 1993 (catálogo de la exposición realizada en Venecia en 1993).

6. Ricardo Rojas, La restauración nacionalista, Buenos Aires, Imprenta de la Penitenciaría, 1910.

7. Roberto Arlt, “Sirio libaneses en el centro”, El Mundo, 23 de julio de 1933, en Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., pp. 89-90.

8. Jorge Luis Borges, “Queja de todo criollo”, en Inquisiciones, primera edición de 1925. Reedición: Buenos Aires, Seix Barral, 1994, p. 145.

9. Roberto Arlt, “Las cuatro recovas”, El Mundo, 17 de enero de 1929, en Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., p. 12.

10. Roberto Arlt, “El desierto en la ciudad”, El Mundo, 26 de enero de 1929, en Aguafuertes porteñas. Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana, op. cit., p. 16.

11. Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Radiografía de la pampa (edición a cargo de Leo Pollmann), Madrid, Colección Archivos, 1991 [1933], pp. 149-150.

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